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Waxes from animals

2016-07-07T20:02:13Z

Gustavo:

Waxes from animals can be obtained from land and marine animals.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 121</ref>

:1. [[Land animal waxes (Woolwax)]]
:2. Marine animal waxes

The wax with a commercial importance from the land-animal group is the woolwax. It is separated from the hair-grease of the sheep, goat, llama and dromedary and it is often called “wool fat”, but since it contains no glycerides (of which fats are composed), the name is not actually appropriate. The crude soft wax obtained from the hair of the sheep is called “Wool grease”, or more specifically “degras”. In wool washing, the free fatty acids and lower esters are saponified to soaps, and the portion that is un-saponified is known as wool fat. The highly refined form of the wool wax is referred to as Hydrous Lanolin, because water has been blended with the wool fat after alkali and centrifugal treatment. If the water is entirely removed, then it is called Anhydrous Lanolin.

There are two types of marine animal waxes: solid marine waxes and liquid marine waxes. For the first group, spermaceti is the most important; and in the liquid type we find sperm oil and closely allied oils, any marine oil free, or nearly free, from glycerides. Liquid marine waxes usually contain considerable amounts of esters of unsaturated alcohols and acids, whereas the solid types contain only esters of saturated components.

=References=
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Land animal waxes (Woolwax)

2016-07-07T20:01:13Z

Gustavo: Página creada con «Wool grease is secreted by the sebaceous glands in sheepskin; its prime function is to create a coat that protects both skin and fleece against exposure to the elements. Th...»

Wool grease is secreted by the sebaceous glands in sheepskin; its prime function is to create a coat that protects both skin and fleece against exposure to the elements. The crude wool wax is refined to produce lanolin and derivatives from lanolin, such as lanolin alcohol, lanolin oil, ethoxylated lanolin, etc. These substances are commonly used as moisturizing ingredients in cosmetic and medical formulations. Lanolin also has industrial applications, as lubricants or protective preparations for ferrous metals.

When the wool is obtained, it then is turned out clean with moisture content of 16% of the weight of the clean, dried wool. If the wool is washed before shearing, the result, freed from yolk, will consist of 73% clean wool, 13% water, 5% soil, 4% fat, 2% potassium salts or equivalent and 2% of foreign organic matter. In contrast, unwashed wools contain 45 to 62% clean wool, 9 to 13% water, 9 to 16% soil, 10 to 24% grease, 4 to 6% potassium salts or equivalent and 4 to 8% foreign organic matter. In wool grease, the “suint” is the saponified portion that contains the potassium salts. The wool fat, which is recovered form the unsaponifiable, is the anhydrous lanolin (adeps lanae) or lanolin (adeps lanae hydrosis).

To determine wool grease in greasy wool, the sample is placed in an extraction thimble, after conditioning to a constant weight at 21.5°C and 70% relative humidity, dried over sulfuric acid for at least 12 hours at 70°C under a vacuum of 25 mm, weighed and placed in a Soxhlet extractor with petrolic ether. The extract is then freed from ether, and dried to a constant weight in a vacuum desiccator. For the determination of "suint," the degreased wool is extracted with hot water in a Soxhlet apparatus; the extract is evaporated on a water bath, dried in a vacuum desiccator, and the residue weighed.

Wool grease (yolk) and suint (water-soluble soaps) are estimated on the basis of percentages of the weights of the clean dry wool.

English merino yields 24 per cent, and Australian merino 42 per cent of woolwax on the clean dry wool basis. Lewkowitsch states that the commercial yield of fully refined woolwax from New Zealand wool is 16.8 per cent, from Australian wool 16 per cent, from South American wool 13.2 per cent, and from Russian wool 6.6 per cent. South American wools are· rick in yolk and require preliminary washing, while Australians do not. Washing is done with tepid water (45°C).

Wool grease of merino wool, Union of South Africa, has a refractive index of 1.4814 to 1.4681, average 1.4753 at 50ºC, which is known to be best for the n readings on wool grease. If the grease is extracted from raw unwashed wool by benzene it will have an acid number of about 93, saponification number 98.6, iodine number (Wijs) 41.8, and unsaponifiable 48.8%. The same wool grease when refined to anhydrous lanolin will have an acid number of 0.2-5.6, saponification number 88 to 96, iodine number 43 to 47, and 40 to 46.6% unsaponifiable. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 122-123</ref>

=Wool scouring and processes of grease recovery=

The scouring of raw wool is done with the aid of warm soda (or potash) lye and a considerable amount of water. Scouring of wool by the soap-soda process necessitates treating it with dilute aqueous sodium carbonate at 20 ºC and then with all aqueous soap solution (pH of 10) at 40 to 50 ºC, for effective removal of the wax. The addition of 1 to 2% of an organic solvent, such as benzene, to the soap solution is said to permit operating at below 40 ºC, thus avoiding danger of felting and attack of wool by alkali. In England the recognized type of merino wool-washing machine has been the forked-frame bowl. Three to five of these machines as a unit are employed for steeping, scouring, rinsing, etc. The emulsion method of scouring is universal in England; but in North America the solvent method is largely in use, the solvent being recovered by distillation procedure for reuse. The following processes have been used to recover the grease after wool scouring: <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 123-124</ref>

:1) The Acid cracking process – for recovering wool grease alone.
:2) The Steeping process – for potash recovery and combined with acid treatment for grease recovery.
:3) The Battage process – in this, the effluent is kept agitated by continuous beating with hand paddles, or bats, and the grease is caused to rise to the surface in a froth, the wool grease being recovered from the foam in a yield of only 25%.
:4) The Barber jet process – it is a combination of jets designed to give very thorough mixing for the separation of wool wax from scour liquors. Compressed air and the liquor are pumped at high velocity though a battery of the Barber jets. The particles of grease coalesce, and this way they get separated from the water phase as a froth, which floats onto a trough, where it is washed with water sprays as it floats to the heating tanks. The process originated in France but has been working in England for a number of years.
:5) The Solvent process – uses benzin or other solvent to extract the grease. Direct solvent extraction of wool was introduced in Europe around 1900, but the wool resulted from the process was harsh and brittle. It was then found that if the solvent extraction was regulated, the wool retains around .5 to .8% of wax, the fiber gets no damage and it can be washed to free it from suint.
:6) The Flue gas treatment – waste liquors are treated with SO2 or CO2 from purified flue gas.
:7) The Smith-Leach process – the scouring liquor is evaporated to a small bulk, the grease recovered in a centrifugal machine and the residue is incinerated for potash recovery.
:8) The Scouring liquor recovery process - removes grease from the waste liquor and the scouring liquor is used over and over again until it is rich enough in potash salts to evaporate profitably.
:9) The Supercentrifuge process – the warm liquor is settled to remove dirt, and is then passed through a Sharples supercentrifuge to separate the grease. In the Duhamel process the wool is treated in a succession of bowls, in the first of which most of the wool-fat is removed by the scouring action of recovered suint liquor. The spent solution from this bowl is pumped to a centrifuge designed to separate sediment from the grease-laden liquor, which then passes to ordinary separators. These discharge high-grade lanolin and degreased suint. In the "Adams centrifigal process," the machine is a simple disc separator, with an extended bowl hood which has jets placed in its periphery through which the mud escapes. The effluents from the scouring plant are passed through settling tanks, usually continuously, to remove sand, and then through a screen to remove burrs and fibers; the effluent is then heated and passed to the Adams centrifuge. The feed-rate, according to Gillespie, is about 7000 gallons per hour, with a mud production of about 110 gallons per hour. A greasy emulsion is obtained, which is reheated and passed to standard centrifugal purifiers. This process originated in 1928, but in the United States it has been improved upon. Centrifugal methods are used for the recovery of approximately 90% of the wool wax produced in Australia.
:10) The Frosted wool process – removes dirt from grease wools of inferior quality. It is used on a large scale in the United States. The wool is passed through a freezing chamber, and cooled to between -30 and -50°F, at which temperature the grease is congealed to a brittle solid; thus subsequent opening and dusting within the freezing chamber shakes off all the impurities, leaving a clean dry wool. About 86 to 90% of the earthy, vegetable, and other foreign matters are removed from the fleece, and 33% of the wax. The wool is then lightly scoured, and finally dried.

=Recovery of wool grease by the Acid-cracking process=

Yorkshire Grease. The acid cracking process is commonly employed in England for the recovery of wool grease, for example: "Yorkshire Brown Grease".
The wool-scouring suds arc collected in large tanks and treated with sufficient mineral acid, usually sulfuric, to "crack" the suint and scouring soaps present. The drained residue is then heated and pressed by wrapping in canvas bags to recover the crude wool grease. Yorkshire grease is distilled to obtain "spirit oil" (4 %), and "distilled grease" (45.5 %) which may be pressed for liquid oleic acid, and solid stearine (m. 48-53°C), "green oils" (15.5%), and pitch (14%, still residue). Water and loss are 21%. Distilled grease has 55% free fatty acids, 7% combined fatty acids, and 39% unsaponifiable matter.

Recovered Grease. In the larger works at Bradford Corporation, compressed air and "concertina" presses are employed. The residue remaining in the press is known as "sud-cake." This by-product is rich in wool fibers, and still contains about 16 per cent of fat. The sud-cake produced in England was formerly sold in France, where it was extracted with solvent to recover the so-called wool fat, and the fat-free residue was sold as a rich fertilizer. Such grease is called "Recovered Grease" and has a more consistent composition than "Yorkshire Grease." It is obtained from the combined sewage from approximately 50 wool-scouring concerns. Such greases have various technical uses but are too impure for the preparation of lanolin. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 124-125</ref>

=Recovery of woolwax by the Steeping process=

There are three steps in the ordinary practice of degreasing wool, namely (1) steeping or washing with tepid water; (2) cleansing or scouring proper with weak alkaline solutions; (3) rinsing or final washing with water. The waste from the potash scouring of wool is run into large, shallow settling cisterns, where (a) the dirt settles out in the course of 24 hours; or (b) the waste liquor or lye is passed through a centrifugal machine where dirt and grease are separated. The dirt is rich in both nitrogen and potash (K2O). The liquor freed from dirt is siphoned into larger wooden vats which serve for the acidulation and recovery of the raw woolwax, or straight grease. In these vats the liquor is agitated by blasts of air from the bottom, and the sulfuric acid is sprayed evenly and gradually. When thoroughly mixed, the contents are left standing for 12 hours, and the raw wax is heated by live steam, or to a temperature of 49-52°C, so that the water can be drawn off for filtering and pressing. It is again run into settling cisterns to remove water, or it may be centrifuged to remove water from oil, depending upon which method is employed. The thoroughly cleansed product is anhydrous lanolin, an excellent emulsifying agent.

Anhydrous lanolin is comprised of about 60% alcohols, and 43.5% mixed fat acids (m, 41°C, iodine no. 17, m. wt. 327). The mixed alcohols have the following constants: m. p. 33°C, iodine no. 26-36, acetyl value 144, m. wt. 239. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 125</ref>

=Preparation of hydrous lanolin from straight grease=

The product of the wool combers, or straight grease, if of good grade, is worked up into hydrous lanolin. The woolwax obtained by the steeping process above described, or by the modern “supercentrifuge” process, is kneaded with water for a long time, or until a water-white, colorless ointment, lanolin, is obtained. In the centrifugal recovery of woolwax, which came into extensive use in 1910, the liquors from the scouring bowls are mixed to give a content of wax approaching 2 %. At a temperature of about 60°C (140°F) the liquor is settled to remove dirt, and it is then passed through a “Sharples supercentriuge”, which operates at a rate of about 25,000 pounds of liquor per day as a maximum. The liquid wax containing about 10% of water, together with water containing the dissolved detergents and soluble materials of raw wool, are discharged continuously. The water which does not contain more than 0.1% of emulsified wax is acidified and again passed through the centrifuge. The waste liquor is discharged to a sewer, or treated for the recovery of potash compounds. The wax is further purified by a combination of washing and chemical bleaching agents, of which sulfur dioxide and chlorine compounds give the best results. Lanolin usually contains about 25% of adsorbed moisture; the best grade is marketed as lanolin, USP. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 125-126</ref>

=Solvent Processes for Extraction of Woolwax=

In the ordinary solvent process the greasy wool is treated with solvent naphtha in closed kiers, and the resulting solution of wool grease is transferred to stills, where the naphtha is recovered and the wool grease is obtained as a by-product. The degreased wool is next treated with a dilute tepid green-soap solution to remove the suint and dirt. The process is said to leave the fiber in much better condition, and the recovered grease may be further purified for the preparation of lanolin compounds. The finer-stapled goods usually contain the largest proportion of grease, and the amount of grease recovered is of sufficient value to retire the cost of scouring. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 126</ref>

=Hypochlorite Process for Treatment of Wool-Scouring Wastes=

The objectionable organic matter of wool-scouring wastes is oxidized by calcium hypochlorite, so that a marketable clean grease with a high yield is obtained. In this process, which was installed in a process plant, the wool-scouring waste is mixed, aerated, and then settled with calcium hypochlorite agent in an amount equal to that of the alkali used in the scour. The resulting sludge of calcium carbonate and insoluble soaps is permitted to separate by 8 hours settling, and the clear supernatant liquid is discharged to the sewer. The sludge and scum are acidified with sulfuric acid to a pH of 4-5, producing a concentrated sludge liquor and a supernatant liquor, which is discharged. The sludge from this process is heated to 190°F and filter pressed. Steam is applied to the presses until 70 to 75% of the grease is recovered. The cake may be disposed of on land and dries without odor. The grease is steamed, treated with mineral acid, and separated; it contains 2% moisture and 5 to 10% free fatty acid. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 126-127</ref>

=References=
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Scale insect wax

2016-06-29T16:50:33Z

Gustavo:

“Scale Insects” is the name given to insects belonging to the family Coccidae of the order Homoptera. They receive this name from the production by the females of a secretion, which often hardens and forms a protective scale beneath which the insect lives; but some species, such as mealy bugs, are invested with a waxy secretion and a true scale is wanting. Scale insects include a number of serious plant pests; on the other hand, some species have a commercial value, notably the Chinese insect Coccus pela, the Japanese insects Ceroplastes spp., the cochineal insect Coccus cacti, the lac insect Carteria lacca, and the so-called ground pearls of the genus Margarodes.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 104</ref>

=Family Coccidae=

There are a number of genera of the family Coccidae that furnish waxes, although only two have been of economic importance thus far, namely Coccus ceriferus, the source of the Chinese insect wax of commerce, and Tachardia Lacca, furnishing "stick-lac" wax or, in its refined form, commercial shellac wax.

In the family Coccidae there is a subfamily Coccinae, in which the "scale" is merely the thickened surface of the insect, instead of being a separate housing of the body. The Pulvinaria is a genus which secretes a mass of waxy cotton-like material in which the insect places the eggs. The genus Coccus belongs to the Coccinae, as do also Brahmea, Tachardia, Cerococcus, and Pulvinaria. These insects are referred as "coccins."

The scale insects that have a wax shell housing separated from the body are known as “coccids”. Ceroplastes is the best known genus; others furnishing waxes are Iceria, Sasakiaspis, Prontapsis, and Tachardina. The character of the wax changes somewhat, depending upon the species of host plant on which the insect feeds; in the Far East these plants are privet, citrus fruit, tea, etc. Most of the wax studies have been made in India, China and Japan. The eggs deposited by the scale insects may be transferred from one host to another to secure the best commercial yields, as in the case of the Coccus ceriferus and the ceroplastids.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 104</ref>

=References=
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Scale insect wax

2016-06-29T16:49:51Z

Gustavo:

“Scale Insects” is the name given to insects belonging to the family Coccidae of the order Homoptera. They receive this name from the production by the females of a secretion, which often hardens and forms a protective scale beneath which the insect lives; but some species, such as mealy bugs, are invested with a waxy secretion and a true scale is wanting. Scale insects include a number of serious plant pests; on the other hand, some species have a commercial value, notably the Chinese insect Coccus pela, the Japanese insects Ceroplastes spp., the cochineal insect Coccus cacti, the lac insect Carteria lacca, and the so-called ground pearls of the genus Margarodes.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 104</ref>.

=Family Coccidae=

There are a number of genera of the family Coccidae that furnish waxes, although only two have been of economic importance thus far, namely Coccus ceriferus, the source of the Chinese insect wax of commerce, and Tachardia Lacca, furnishing "stick-lac" wax or, in its refined form, commercial shellac wax.

In the family Coccidae there is a subfamily Coccinae, in which the "scale" is merely the thickened surface of the insect, instead of being a separate housing of the body. The Pulvinaria is a genus which secretes a mass of waxy cotton-like material in which the insect places the eggs. The genus Coccus belongs to the Coccinae, as do also Brahmea, Tachardia, Cerococcus, and Pulvinaria. These insects are referred as "coccins."

The scale insects that have a wax shell housing separated from the body are known as “coccids”. Ceroplastes is the best known genus; others furnishing waxes are Iceria, Sasakiaspis, Prontapsis, and Tachardina. The character of the wax changes somewhat, depending upon the species of host plant on which the insect feeds; in the Far East these plants are privet, citrus fruit, tea, etc. Most of the wax studies have been made in India, China and Japan. The eggs deposited by the scale insects may be transferred from one host to another to secure the best commercial yields, as in the case of the Coccus ceriferus and the ceroplastids.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 104</ref>.

=References=
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Beeswax

2016-06-29T16:42:18Z

Gustavo:

=Beeswax (Genus Apis)=

Genus Apis is the genus that plays the most important economic role in the beeswax commerce. There are different species belonging to this genus: the giant bee (apis dorsata), a medium sized bee (apis indica), the tiny East Indian bee (apis florea) and the domesticated honey bee (apis mellifica). Originally, the honeybee was named Apis mellifera by Linnaeus in 1758, and he changed the name later to Apis mellifica. In a more general sense, the term Apis mellifera denotes honey carriers or bearers; while Apis mellifica produce honeycombs of almost pure wax, commercially known as “genuine beeswax”.

There are many races of Apis mellifica all over the world. For example: the black bees of Caucasia, Carniola and Banat; in Great Britain and Europe exists the brown bees. In Cyprus, northern Italy and the Holy Land, and propagated in the United States we can find the yellow bees, and all these exist in variants or strains with mixed colors. The waxes obtained from these races do not differ much in physical characteristics or chemical constants.

There are other bees that are used as honey makers and wax producers; for example the Apis facista in northern Africa (regarded as the prettiest bee in the world), the Apis adansonni in Senegal; Apis caffra and Apis scutelata in southern Africa, Apis unicolor (regarded as the blackest bee) in Madagascar and it has been introduced to other parts of the world. The previously mentioned East Indian species Apis dorsata, Apis florea and Apis indica; produce a different wax from the ones mentioned above, they produce Ghedda wax.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 76</ref>

=Secretion of Wax by the Bee=

The wax scales are secreted by eight wax glands on the under side of the abdomen of the worker bee. The wax is liquid when secreted, since it is derived from the blood of the bee by cell action. The secretion rapidly hardens to a pearly scale, more or less transparent, like mica. The wax scale is removed from the abdomen by a hind leg of the insect, and received by the mandible of a co-worker, where it is chewed with a secretion, before being placed in the cell of the comb. The comb is constructed in a hexagonal pattern, which provides structural strength and maximum economy of space. In the natural comb there are 4.83 cells to the linear inch, or 825 cells to the square decimeter. The bees are believed to deploy about eight pounds of honey to secrete one pound of wax.

Comb foundations are provided for hive-bees so as not to waste honey; 1.5 to 3 pounds of wax can be obtained from ten combs when they are scraped. The largest amount of wax is in the foundation and in the capping, since the sidewalls are remarkably thin. A practice to be severely condemned is the artificial manufacture of comb foundations from hydro-generated vegetable oil wax, ceresin, paraffin, or other false waxes, as such spurious foundations eventually may find their way into the beeswax of commerce as highly undesirable impurities.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 77</ref>

=Coloration of Beeswax=

Vansell and Bisson of the California Agricultural Experimental Station made a study of the coloration of beeswax. Freshly secreted beeswax is white, but it readily absorbs colors from various sources. Some pollens carry yellow substances, which are liberated to the beeswax as either solid or liquid state. A cell in a new bee comb, as well as the walls of the adjacent cells, become very yellow when melted (in glass) with fresh pollens collected from various plants. It was found that color was liberated from pollen much more slowly after the grains had become dry. For example, the color imparted to white beeswax by the golden pollen of the sunflower, Helianthus bolanderi, is a bright orange-yellow; that of the golden pollen of the California poppy, Papaver californicum, a brilliant orange yellow; that of the bright yellow dandelion, Taraxacum officinale Weber, a bright yellow; that of the brown pollen of the white clover, Trifolium repens L., only a trace of yellow; that of the pollens of alfalfa, flax, hollyhock, and many others, none.

Much of the crude bees wax imported from Cuba and other Caribbean countries is distinctly brown. It has a strong beeswax odor, masked to some extent by a tobacco-like smell. The pollen of tobacco plants is said to be responsible for both the off-odor and the off-color of this wax. Beeswax from South American sources is often lacking in pronounced color or odor, even though free from the adulteration by paraffine, sometimes found in Chilean beeswax. Crude beeswax from West Africa has a definite yellow color and a strong beeswax odor, and is characteristically blackened at the edges of the pieces. Some of these characteristics distinguish one beeswax from another as to origin. The aromatic bodies and coloring matter in beeswax are soluble in 80 per cent ethanol and insoluble in petroleum ether.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 77</ref>

=Rendering of Crude Beeswax=

Crude beeswax is usually rendered from the frames and from scrapings by melting over hot water or under solar heat. In the hot-water extraction process the container is partially filled with boiling water, and the beeswax from broken combs or cappings added. It is common practice to soak the combs in cold water for several hours before melting, so that when the wax is melted over the boiling water, it will not be absorbed by its impurities, and also to wash out the water-soluble substances. The melted wax floats on the surface; and is strained with the water through a wet cloth to remove bee and cocoon fragments and other foreign matter. Upon cooling, the wax solidifies into a cake on top of the water; dirt is removed by scraping the bottom of the cake. Dragging the mass with cheesecloth fastened to a hoop, and permitting the wax to harden on cooling can also accomplish the straining. The cake is then removed.

If the combs are rendered on a large scale the melted wax is removed from the hot-water container by decantation from the surface; any residue is placed in layers of straw and pressed to obtain more wax, the straw acting as a filter. A wax press employing hot water for this purpose is available; the product is called "press wax". High-or-low pressure steam is a good indirect source of heat for melting wax. The water used in the melting process should have a low mineral content. Stainless steel or aluminum is desirable for wax-processing equipment. Wood or glass makes an excellent container for the manipulation of wax, which will become contaminated by the use of iron equipment.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 78</ref>

=Solar Extraction Process=

In the "solar extraction process” exposing it to the sun in a solar extractor can render the crude beeswax from the cappings. Sun melting reduces the intensity of its color and removes soluble contaminating substances by coagulation. Vansell and Bisson state that one large producer in the Sacramento Valley in California, in preparing cappings for solar extraction, lets the cuttings fall into cloth boxes, which are supported over a long, shallow draining trough, thus allowing the cappings honey to run into the general stream from the extractor. As each box is filled, it is slid along the rack and replaced by an empty one. When the cappings are sufficiently drained of honey, each box is transferred to an individual solar extractor. A long, narrow extractor could be constructed to accommodate several of these boxes, thus increasing the efficiency of the process. Galvanized iron is satisfactory construction material for the solar extractor.

In preparing the best quality of wax for commerce it is common practice to pare off the capping of the honey cells and then place the comb in a centrifugal machine (extractor), which removes the honey and leaves the comb undamaged so that it can be replaced in the hive to be refilled by the bees, and thus save the honey they would use in making a new comb. Such a prepared wax is of a good grade, as it is free from propolis, a greenish brown, resinous substance that the bees use in sealing the cells in the comb and for attaching it to its support. The bees obtain the resin from the branches and leaves of the birch, ash, elm, balsam, poplar and other trees. When a comb has been refilled by the bees several times and is melted down, the wax is very brown, and strong in odor.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 78</ref>

=Sources of Beeswax=

More than fifty years ago Herbig attempted to show the world-wide distribution of beeswax in the following manner. Europe: Germany, Italy, Turkey, Portugal, and France. Africa: Egypt, East and West Africa. Asia: Syria, Ceylon, Singapore, Bombay, Madras and Burma. America: California, Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Domingo, Brazil and Chile. It will be noted that the list is a comprehensive if not complete one. There is no other natural wax known that has so wide a distribution as beeswax. The United States imports much of its beeswax from Brazil, the Caribbean countries, Chile, and Benguella in West Africa.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 79</ref>

=References=
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Animal

2016-06-29T16:40:33Z

Gustavo:

Animal waxes can be obtained from land and marine animals.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 121</ref>

:1. Land animal waxes (Woolwax)
:2. Marine animal waxes

The wax with a commercial importance from the land-animal group is the woolwax. It is separated from the hair-grease of the sheep, goat, llama and dromedary and it is often called “wool fat”, but since it contains no glycerides (of which fats are composed), the name is not actually appropriate. The crude soft wax obtained from the hair of the sheep is called “Wool grease”, or more specifically “degras”. In wool washing, the free fatty acids and lower esters are saponified to soaps, and the portion that is un-saponified is known as wool fat. The highly refined form of the wool wax is referred to as Hydrous Lanolin, because water has been blended with the wool fat after alkali and centrifugal treatment. If the water is entirely removed, then it is called Anhydrous Lanolin.

There are two types of marine animal waxes: solid marine waxes and liquid marine waxes. For the first group, spermaceti is the most important; and in the liquid type we find sperm oil and closely allied oils, any marine oil free, or nearly free, from glycerides. Liquid marine waxes usually contain considerable amounts of esters of unsaturated alcohols and acids, whereas the solid types contain only esters of saturated components.

=References=
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Animal

2016-06-29T16:37:42Z

Gustavo: Página creada con «Animal waxes can be obtained from land and marine animals.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 121<...»

Animal waxes can be obtained from land and marine animals.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 121</ref>

:1. Land animal waxes
:2. Marine animal waxes

The wax with a commercial importance from the land-animal group is the woolwax. It is separated from the hair-grease of the sheep, goat, llama and dromedary and it is often called “wool fat”, but since it contains no glycerides (of which fats are composed), the name is not actually appropriate. The crude soft wax obtained from the hair of the sheep is called “Wool grease”, or more specifically “degras”. In wool washing, the free fatty acids and lower esters are saponified to soaps, and the portion that is un-saponified is known as wool fat. The highly refined form of the wool wax is referred to as Hydrous Lanolin, because water has been blended with the wool fat after alkali and centrifugal treatment. If the water is entirely removed, then it is called Anhydrous Lanolin.

There are two types of marine animal waxes: solid marine waxes and liquid marine waxes. For the first group, spermaceti is the most important; and in the liquid type we find sperm oil and closely allied oils, any marine oil free, or nearly free, from glycerides. Liquid marine waxes usually contain considerable amounts of esters of unsaturated alcohols and acids, whereas the solid types contain only esters of saturated components.

=References=
<references/>

Página principal

2016-06-29T16:24:39Z

Gustavo: /* Classification of Waxes */

==Classification of Waxes==
:1 Mineral
:2 Vegetable
:3 [[Animal]]
:4 [[Insect]]
:5 Synthetic or Manufactured
:6 Compounded

==Tests and techniques==
:1 Structure
:2 Chemical Properties
::2.1 [[Acid Value]]
::2.2 [[Ester value]]
::2.3 [[Saponification value]]
::2.4 [[Iodine value]]
::2.5 [[Hidroxyl and Acetyl numbers]]
:3 Determination of Physical Constants
::3.1 [[Melting Point]]
::3.2 [[Penetration Test]]
::3.3 [[Color]]
::3.4 [[Odor]]
::3.5 [[Softening Point]]

==Industrial Uses of waxes ==
:1 Food
:2 [[Adhesives]]
::2.1 [[Hot melt]]
:3 [[Textile]]
:4 Cosmetics
:5 Coatings
:6 Explosives

==Legislation, normativity==
:1 FDA
:2 European normativity

Página principal

2016-06-29T16:22:58Z

Gustavo: /* Classification of Waxes */

==Classification of Waxes==
:1 Mineral
:2 Vegetable
:3 [[Animal wax]]
:4 [[Insect]]
:5 Synthetic or Manufactured
:6 Compounded

==Tests and techniques==
:1 Structure
:2 Chemical Properties
::2.1 [[Acid Value]]
::2.2 [[Ester value]]
::2.3 [[Saponification value]]
::2.4 [[Iodine value]]
::2.5 [[Hidroxyl and Acetyl numbers]]
:3 Determination of Physical Constants
::3.1 [[Melting Point]]
::3.2 [[Penetration Test]]
::3.3 [[Color]]
::3.4 [[Odor]]
::3.5 [[Softening Point]]

==Industrial Uses of waxes ==
:1 Food
:2 [[Adhesives]]
::2.1 [[Hot melt]]
:3 [[Textile]]
:4 Cosmetics
:5 Coatings
:6 Explosives

==Legislation, normativity==
:1 FDA
:2 European normativity

Página principal

2016-06-29T16:20:21Z

Gustavo: /* Classification of Waxes */

==Classification of Waxes==
:1 Mineral
:2 Vegetable
:3 [[Animal wax]]
:4 [[Insect wax]]
:5 Synthetic or Manufactured
:6 Compounded

==Tests and techniques==
:1 Structure
:2 Chemical Properties
::2.1 [[Acid Value]]
::2.2 [[Ester value]]
::2.3 [[Saponification value]]
::2.4 [[Iodine value]]
::2.5 [[Hidroxyl and Acetyl numbers]]
:3 Determination of Physical Constants
::3.1 [[Melting Point]]
::3.2 [[Penetration Test]]
::3.3 [[Color]]
::3.4 [[Odor]]
::3.5 [[Softening Point]]

==Industrial Uses of waxes ==
:1 Food
:2 [[Adhesives]]
::2.1 [[Hot melt]]
:3 [[Textile]]
:4 Cosmetics
:5 Coatings
:6 Explosives

==Legislation, normativity==
:1 FDA
:2 European normativity

Página principal

2016-06-29T16:18:22Z

Gustavo:

Beeswax

2016-06-29T16:17:36Z

Gustavo:

Chinese insect wax

2016-06-29T16:16:52Z

Gustavo: Página creada con «Chinese insect wax, also called China wax, or "pe-la" by the Chinese, often resembles spermaceti in whiteness and crystalline appearance, but it is of greater hardness and...»

Chinese insect wax, also called China wax, or "pe-la" by the Chinese, often resembles spermaceti in whiteness and crystalline appearance, but it is of greater hardness and friability. The wax is the product obtainable from the coccid insect Coccus ceriferus Farb., (Coccus pela Westwood). The U. S. Dispensatory refers to the species as Ericerus pela. The insects are deposited on the twigs and branches of the Chinese ash, Fraxinus chinensis Rosburgh. The insects closely infest the twigs and become imbedded in a waxy material; when scraped off with the insects, this material constitutes the crude wax. Melting and straining purifies it. Cooper in his "Travels of a Pioneer" in China tells of its production in the manner described' below.

The seat of the industry is in Szechwan (province of Sze-chuen) in China. The "wax-trees" are cut down to a height of eight feet leaving no branches, the trunks sending forth shoots in the spring. The insects are cultivated in a different province (Yunnan). Here the brown pea-shaped scales containing the larvae of the wax insect are developed on an evergreen Ligustrum luditum Ait. (large-leaved privet) as a host. From Yunnan vast quantities of eggs or scales are shipped to Szechwan each year, where they are received in little balls the size of peas. These are suspended, enclosed in young leaves, on the shoots of the tree in March. In about two months the larvae emerging from the packets feed on the leaves. They soon attain the size of small butterflies, spreading themselves in immense number over the branches, which are so whitened by them as to seem covered with feathery snow. As it advances to the chrysalis form, the grub buries itself in a white secretion which covers all the branches an inch thick. These are then cut off near the stem and divided into small pieces, which are tied in bundles and put in large cauldrons, where they are boiled in water till the wax melts and rises to the surface. The wax is then skimmed off and run into molds, where it hardens. It is said that 1.500 insects produce 1 to 2 grams of wax; a pound of larvae scale will produce 4 or 5 pounds. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 105</ref>

=References=
<references/>

Insect

2016-06-29T16:09:25Z

Gustavo:

The two principal groupings of the wax-producing insects are the Apidae, of which the honey bees are the outstanding members; and the Coccidae to which belong the Coccus ceriferus, the source of Chinese insect wax, and the Carteria lacca, source of stick-lac.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 76</ref>.

:1. [[Beeswax]]
:2. [[Scale insect wax]]
:3. [[Chinese insect wax]]

=References=
<references/>

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2014-11-27T08:39:16Z

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