WaxPedia - User contributions [en]

Mineral waxes

2019-10-08T17:34:17Z

Mireya:

Under mineral waxes, those commercial waxes will be treated which are derived from the earth as such or obtained from a mass of earthy origin by refining. They occur in petroleum, bituminous coal and slate and consist of unsaponifiable hydrocarbons, nearly all saturated. The melting point of these waxes increases in the order of their molecular weights, disregarding any contaminants which they may contain. <ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 5</ref>

:1. [[Paraffin wax]]
:2. [[Microcrystalline waxes]]
:3. [[Petrolatum wax]]
:4. [[Ozokerite wax]]
:5. [[Ceresin wax]]
:6. [[Utah wax]]
:7. [[Montan wax]]

=References=
<references/>

Waxpedia

2019-10-08T17:33:14Z

Mireya:

==Classification of Waxes==
:1 [[Mineral waxes]]
:2 [[Waxes from plants]]
:3 [[Waxes from animals]]
:4 [[Waxes from insects]]
:5 Synthetic or Manufactured waxes
:6 Compounded waxes

==Tests and techniques==
:1 Structure
:2 Chemical Properties
::2.1 [[Acid Value]]
::2.2 [[Ester value]]
::2.3 [[Saponification value]]
::2.4 [[Iodine value]]
::2.5 [[Hidroxyl and Acetyl numbers]]
:3 Determination of Physical Constants
::3.1 [[Melting Point]]
::3.2 [[Penetration Test]]
::3.3 [[Color]]
::3.4 [[Odor]]
::3.5 [[Softening Point]]

==Industrial Uses of waxes ==
:1 Food
:2 [[Adhesives]]
::2.1 [[Hot melt]]
:3 [[Textile]]
:4 Cosmetics
:5 Coatings
:6 Explosives

==Legislation, normativity==
:1 FDA
:2 European normativity

Waxpedia

2019-10-08T17:32:36Z

Mireya:

==Classification of Waxes==
:1 [[Mineral waxes]]
:2 [[Waxes from Plants]]
:3 [[Waxes from animals]]
:4 [[Waxes from insects]]
:5 Synthetic or Manufactured waxes
:6 Compounded waxes

==Tests and techniques==
:1 Structure
:2 Chemical Properties
::2.1 [[Acid Value]]
::2.2 [[Ester value]]
::2.3 [[Saponification value]]
::2.4 [[Iodine value]]
::2.5 [[Hidroxyl and Acetyl numbers]]
:3 Determination of Physical Constants
::3.1 [[Melting Point]]
::3.2 [[Penetration Test]]
::3.3 [[Color]]
::3.4 [[Odor]]
::3.5 [[Softening Point]]

==Industrial Uses of waxes ==
:1 Food
:2 [[Adhesives]]
::2.1 [[Hot melt]]
:3 [[Textile]]
:4 Cosmetics
:5 Coatings
:6 Explosives

==Legislation, normativity==
:1 FDA
:2 European normativity

Mineral waxes

2019-10-08T17:29:54Z

Mireya:

Under mineral waxes, those commercial waxes will be treated which are derived from the earth as such or obtained from a mass of earthy origin by refining. They occur in petroleum, bituminous coal and slate and consist of unsaponifiable hydrocarbons, nearly all saturated. The melting point of these waxes increases in the order of their molecular weights, disregarding any contaminants which they may contain. <ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 5</ref>

:1. [[Paraffin Wax]]
:2. [[Microcrystalline Waxes]]
:3. [[Petrolatum Wax]]
:4. [[Ozokerite Wax]]
:5. [[Ceresin Wax]]
:6. [[Utah Wax]]
:7. [[Montan Wax]]

=References=
<references/>

Softening Point

2018-06-14T21:17:26Z

Mireya:

The softening point is the temperature at which a substance attains a particular degree of softness. Since in technical use waxed surfaces frequently come in contact with liquids under pressure it becomes necessary to recognize the temperature at which the wax will lose its firmness and perhaps its utility as well<ref>Warth, A.H., The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p.602-605</ref>.

=Methods=

The softening point of wax is the temperature at which the solid wax begins to soften. Synthetics waxes such polyethylene wax and some blends of hydrocarbon waxes with polymers that have no definite [[melting point]], they are reported with softening point.
Waxes used in hot-melt adhesives require high temperature performance, and so the softening point can be an indication of the performance properties of the wax.

[[File:Ring_and_ball.jpg|280x280px|miniaturadeimagen|default|Rings, balls, ball-centering guides and ring holder]]

==Ring-and-Ball==

Ring & Ball method was designed in engineering civil to determine the softening point of asphaltic bitumen and fluxed native asphalt, road tar, coal tar pitch and blown type bitumen<ref>Determination of softening point standard. IS: 1205 – 1978</ref> but it is well used in the determining the softening point in waxes. The principle behind this test is that softening point is the temperature at which the substance attains a particular degree of softening under specified conditions of the test.

The apparatus for the ring and ball method consists in a pouring plate, rings, ring holder, balls, ball-centering guides and a glass vessel, capable of being heated, not less than 85 mm in inside diameter and not less than 120 mm in depth from the bottom of the flare.

The wax sample is melted and stirred until it is completely fluid and free from air bubbles and water. The molten wax is poured into the rings, previously heated to a temperature approximately to that of molten material on a metal plate; the excess material is removed with a slightly heated knife or spatula.

The apparatus is assembling with the specimen rings, ball-centering guides, and thermometer in position, and the bath is filled with freshly boiled distilled water or pure glycerin [For referee purposes, all softening points up to 80°C (176°F) shall be determined in a water bath and all softening points above 80°C (176°F) shall be determined in a glycerin bath], so that the liquid depth will be 105 ± 3 mm with the apparatus in place.

Steel balls are placed from the bottom of the bath in each ball-centering guide and heat is applied to the bath and stir. The softening point is the temperature at which the material softens and allows the balls to pass through the ring.

=References=
<references/>

Color

2018-06-14T21:16:42Z

Mireya:

Determination of the color of waxes is important because this physical property is immediately observed by consumers.
This physical property also serves as a control in the manufacturing and as an indicator of the degree of refinement of waxes. Since the range of color is known a variation outside the established range could be a guide for a possible contamination or to know when they have been refined to the required grade.

=Methods=
Aside from the Saybolt color method, colors of waxes are sometimes expressed in the terms of the Lovibond scale, or by the NPA color standard (Method ASTM D1500). These latter methods require matching the color with a colored slide. The Saybolt method employs discs of gray-colored glass, and is limited to the white and off-white waxes<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 612 – 614</ref>.

[[File:Saybolt-1.jpg|280x280px|miniaturadeimagen|default|Saybolt Chromometer Apparatus]]

===Saybolt Chromometer Method===
Saybolt color is an empirical definition of the color of a clear petroleum liquid based on a scale of -16 (darkest) to +30 (lightest). The number is derived by finding the height of a column of the sample that, when viewed through the length of the column, visually matches the appropriate one three glass standards referring to Table 1 of Test Method D156
Switch the device on (colorimeter electrical system) from 20 to 30 minutes before use it. The wax sample is melted (when the sample is cloudy, filter through a paper filter), the heating of the sample must not be higher than 8 -17 °C above its congealing point (the sample can be oxidized if overheated). Secure the key is closed by rising the colorimeter bulb’ output key’ handle that contains or will contain the sample and turn the lamp on. Arrange the filters, the mirror and the lamp to see a clear field through the ocular.
Pour the sample into the bulb until it is full but make sure you can see clear through the ocular field and the filter. Start pouring the sample, draining it through the key, slowly and observing through the ocular the sample and the filter. Stop the sample output, closing the key, when the sample looks the same in color intensity than the filter; make sure the lamp, mirror and standard filters are well positioned. If the sample does not equal at any moment in color the filter in use, change the filter (the colorimeter has 3 filters, one half filter, one filter and two filter, which are used depending on the color of the sample),and rerun. Make sure the sample does not last long in the bulb otherwise it could get burn or rust, changing of color, approximate maximum time duration 10 minutes. When the samples equals in color the filter, observe the reading mark by the meniscus of the wax in the graduated bulb. To end the procedure, the reading just made is searched in the table located in the back of the colorimeter, in the “Depth of oil In” section, the filter used in the column is verified in “Number of color standards”, and the final result color is searched in the “color number” column<ref name="multiple">Annual Book of ASTM-Standards (American Society for Testing and Materials), Petroleum Products, Lubrications. (1999). West Conshohocken, Sect. 5</ref>.

[[File:colorimeter-1.jpg|150x150px|marco|derecha|Colorimeter]]

===ASTM Color of Petroleum Products===
Using a standard light source, a liquid sample is placed in the test container and compared with colored glass disks ranging in value from 0.5 to 8.0. When an exact match is not found and the sample color falls between two standard colors, the higher of the two colors is reported.
The wax sample is melted to approximately 17°C above its congealing point, after this, place the sample in its container and introduce in the other compartment and cover the containers to exclude all light from exterior. Turn the light source on and compare the sample color against the pattern glasses ‘color<ref name="multiple">Annual Book of ASTM-Standards (American Society for Testing and Materials), Petroleum Products, Lubrications. (1999). West Conshohocken, Sect. 5</ref>.

===Lovibond Color Method===
Lovibond also known as degrees lovibond or abbreviated as L is a scale for measuring color originally introduced by Joseph Lovibond in the 1860's. To determine color the sample is placed in a "Tintometer" which also contains several numbered discs of tinted glass. The Lovibond color is the value assigned to the disc whose color most closely matches the sample. The original Lovibond scale was used to measure gas colors, but has since expanded to measure the colors of oils, chemicals, foods and beverages.
Nowadays Lovibond is a Brand dedicated to de manufacture and distribution of water equipment and color test instruments<ref> [http://www.lovibond.com/ Lovibond]</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

Penetration Test

2018-06-14T21:15:56Z

Mireya:

The penetration test is the measures of the depth to which a needle with a definite top load penetrates the wax sample. Where the conditions of test are not specifically mentioned, the load, time, and temperature are understood to be 100 g, 5 sec, 25° respectively, and the units of penetration to indicate tenths of a millimeter.
The penetration test is particularly well adapted for microcrystalline waxes, and is more reliable than the durometer test in determining hardness <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 612 – 614</ref>.
This test provides an estimate of the consistency of waxes and their molecular characteristics.

=Methods=
It has been reported that the needle penetration on paraffin waxes increases with the increase of iso- and cyclo-paraffin<ref>Zaky, M.T. (2005) A Study on the Dependence of Penetration on the Physical and Molecular Characteristics of Paraffin Waxes. Petroleum Science and Technology, Vol. 23, p 1381–1392</ref>. A hard wax has a low penetration, whereas a soft wax has a high penetration.

The needle penetration method is used for waxes with a penetration less than 250dmm, as in the case of some paraffin and microcrystalline waxes, while the cone penetration method is used to perform the measurement in "soft waxes" like slacks waxes.

[[File:Needle-1.jpg|280x280px|miniaturadeimagen|default|On the left: needle for needle penetration Test. On the right: needle for cone penetration test]]

==Needle Penetration ==
This test method (ASTM D 1231) covers the empirical estimation of the consistency of waxes derived from petroleum by measurement of the excent of penetration of a standard needle. This test method is applicable to waxes having a penetration of not greater than 250.<ref name="multiple">Annual Book of ASTM-Standards (American Society for Testing and Materials), Petroleum Products, Lubrications. (1999). West Conshohocken, Sect. 5</ref>.

The wax sample is melted to approximately 17°C above its congealing point. The melted wax is then poured into a cylinder container with a base to lie on a flat surface and once it has cool at in the room at 25°C, the container with the solidified wax is placed in a water bath at 25°C for 1 hour.
Verify that the penetrometer has the needle penetration placed and check that the indicator needle is placed at “zero” on the scale. Place the container cylinder so that the sample surface is level with the needle. This is done by rising or lowering the base with a screw located in the back of the penetrometer. Press the needle shaft and at the same time start the count of 5 seconds using a stopwatch or clock. And once the 5 seconds elapsed release the shaft of the penetrometer. Without moving the needle or the penetrometer´s base, press the handle located on the top of the penetrometer, until it touches the top of the needle holder. Finale take the reading which indicates the needle on the scale, the reading is given in tenths of a millimeter.

==Cone Penetration==
This test method (ASTM D 937) covers measuring with a penetrometer the penetration of petrolatum as an empirical measure of consistency.<ref name="multiple"> </ref>.

Pour the liquid wax in the container and let cool to room temperature, place it in a water bath at 25°C for 2 hours. Remove the sample from the water bath and place it on the penetrometer making sure the penetrometer´s scale reads zero. Lift the penetrometer´s base until the needle touches the sample and press the penetrometer insurance and start the count (5 seconds). Within the 5 seconds release the insurance and press the handle on the top.
Finale take the reading which indicates the needle on the scale, the reading is given in tenths of a millimeter.

=References=
<references/>

Ester value

2018-06-14T21:14:01Z

Mireya:

The ester value is the number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to saponify the esters in 1.0 g of the substance.<ref name="multiple">Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p.586</ref>

=Wax esters=

Wax esters are oxoesters of long-chain fatty acids esterified with long-chain alcohols. The ester value shows the amount alkali consumed in the saponification of the esters<ref>Pharmacopedia/National Formulary. US., Vol. 1, 2009, p. 150</ref> and is possible identify and differentiate the waxes with this value; for example beeswax ester value is 72 to 79 mg KOH/ g, candelilla wax ester value is 31 to 43 mg KOH/g and carnauba wax ester value is 74 to 78 mg KOH/g.

=Method=
In ester value determination, the sample is hydrolysed to alcohol and using excess of standar potassium hydroxide solution. The excess of alkali is back titrated.
USP-NF monographs presents a general procedure of ester value apply to fats, fixed oils and waxes.

[[File:ESTER.jpg|680x680px|centro|]]

==USP 401==
Place 1.5 g to 2 g of the substance in a tared, 250 mL flasks, add 20 mL to 30 mL of neutralized alcohol and shake. Add 1 mL of phenolphthalein, and titrate with 0.5 N alcoholic potassium hydroxide until the free acid is neutralized. Add 25.0 mL of 0.5N alcoholic potassium hydroxide. Heat the flask on a steam bath, under a suitable condenser to maintain reflux for 30 minutes, frequently rotating the contents titrate the excess potassium hydroxide with 0.5 N hydrochloric acid. Perform a blank determination under the same conditions. Calculate the ester value by the formula:

[[File:Ester value1.jpg|280x280px|centro|]]

BHCl: is the volume in mL, of the hydrochloric acid consumed by the blank

VHCl: is the volume in mL, of the hydrochloric acid consumed by the actual test

W: is the weight, in g, of the sample taken

It is possible to perform this test using the sample at the end of determination of [[acid value]], adding 15 mL of potassium hydroxide 0.5 N and heat the flask under a suitable condenser to maintain reflux for 3-4 h. Titrate the excess potassium hydroxide with 0.5 N hydrochloric acid (until the sample turns white). Perform a blank determination under the same conditions. Register the volume of hydrochloric acid consumed for the sample as the well blank. Calculate ester value by the formula:

[[File:Estervalue.jpg|280x280px|centro|]]

BHCl: is the volume in mL, of the hydrochloric acid consumed by the blank

VHCl: is the volume in mL, of the hydrochloric acid consumed by the actual test

NHCl: is the normality of the hydrochloric acid

56.1: is the molecular weight of potassium hydroxide

W: is the weight, in g, of the sample taken

=References=
<references />

Acid Value

2018-06-14T21:12:39Z

Mireya:

Acidity is frequently expressed as the Acid Value, which is the number of mg of potassium hydroxide required to neutralize the free acids in 1.0 g of the substance<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 586</ref>.

=Methods=
The acid value of a wax is determined by dissolving a known amount of the wax in alcohol and titrating the solution against standard alkali solution.

[[File:Acid_reaction.jpg|380x380px|centro|]]

==USP 401==
The acidity of fats and fixed oils in USP may be expressed as the number of mL of 0.1 N alkali required to neutralize the free acids in 10.0 g of substance<ref>Pharmacopedia/National Formulary. US., Vol. 1, 2009, p. 150</ref>.

Weigh 3 g of sample and place it in a clean 250 mL Erlenmeyer flask. Place 50 mL of solvent (isopropyl alcohol-toluene 5:4) connect the flask with a suitable condenser and warm slowly, with frequent shaking, until the sample dissolves. Remove the flask from the condenser and add 1 mL of phenolphthalein in isopropyl alcohol.
Shake vigorously while titrating with 0.1 N potassium hydroxide. Register the volume of potassium hydroxide consumed.Calculate Acid value by the formula:

[[File:Diapositiva1.JPG|180x180px|centro|]]

Which:

56.11: is the molecular weight of potassium hydroxide

V: is the volume in mL

N: is the normality of the potassium hydroxide solution

W: is the weight, in g, of the sample taken

==Referencia==

<references />

Marine animal waxes

2017-02-21T17:04:02Z

Mireya:

=Description=
Spermaceti is a wax found in the head cavities of the sperm whale, ''Physeter macrocephalus Linné (P. catadan)'', which is the largest of the toothed whales or cachalots. Spermaceti also occurs to a much lesser extent in the blubber oil of the sperm whale, an in the bottlenose whale, ''Balaena rostrata'' and a few other cetaceans, but not in the oil of the whalebone whales.

The sperm whale is 60 to 80 feet length, with an enormous head, 30 feet in circumference, in which there is a large hollow on the upper surface of the skull, filled with a peculiar fatty tissue. When the spongy mass is removed from the head, the oil is allowed to separate by draining. Spermaceti is in the oil in a dissolved state while the animal is living, but tends to concrete later on. The resultant mass, after draining the oil, is boiled in a 2 to 3 per cent lye solution to clean it; it is then washed free from alkali, and the wax melted and moulded into cakes.

One sperm whale yields upward of three tons of oil and over 500 pounds of spermaceti. The blubber oil can be hydrogenated to obtain a spermaceti wax that is a trifle harder and higher in melting point (46 - 50ºC) than the natural spermaceti (m. 43 - 47ºC). In the refineries the strained oil is allowed to stand in refrigerator for several days at a temperature of 0ºC (32ºF) and then pressed to produce what is known as "stearine-free" oil. Spermaceti is also recovered from the press residues by re-pressing at a higher temperature<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 141</ref>.

=Properties=
Spermaceti is white, somewhat translucent, in slightly unctuous masses of a scaly, crystalline fracture and pearly luster, with a very faint odor, and a bland, mild taste. It becomes yellowish and somewhat rancid on long exposure to air.

Since spermaceti has in the past been adulterated with paraffin or other substances, considerable attention has been given by cosmetics and pharmaceutical authorities to the promulgation of suitable standards of physical and chemical constants to define its purity. The present spermaceti of commerce has a specific gravity of 0.938 to 0.944 at 25ºC, and of 0.842 at 100ºC. The refractive index of spermaceti is 1.4397, or almost identical with the ''cetyl palmitate'', its principal constituent. Spermaceti is soluble in hot acetone and alcohol, in carbo tetrachloride, chloroform, ether, naphtha, and turpentine. It has an acid value 2 - 5.2, saponification number 108 - 134, iodine number 4.8 - 5.9, and unsaponifiable 51 - 53.8 per cent<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 143</ref>.

=Purity and Uses of Spermaceti=
As spermaceti is occasionally adulterated with stearic acid or paraffin, or both, it is often necessary to test it for purity. In medicine, spermaceti is used as a demulcent in irritation of the mucous membrane, but it has no remedial properties. An emulsion of this sort can be made by mixing spermaceti first with half its weight of olive oil, then with powdered gum arabic, and lastly with water. Spermaceti is used chiefly as a base of ointments, cerates, etc. Spermaceti Cerate is made by melting together 10 parts of spermaceti and 35 parts of white beeswax, and then adding 55 parts of warmed olive oil. Spermaceti is used in cosmetics, in the finishing and lustering of linens, in laundry wax, and in special soaps and emulsifying agents.

Spermaceti is used to a limited extent in the manufacture of candles, and a little beeswax or other plastic wax is then added to make candles less crystalline and brittle. It is important to note that spermaceti is the wax used in the candle which defines our unit of candlepower. The standard candle of Great Britain, which was also legalized in the United States, is one which weight one-sixth of a pound and burns 120 grains of spermaceti per hour. In the manufacture of the English standard sperm candle it is prescribed by the Metropolitan Gas Referees in London that the wicks shall be made of three strands of cotton plaited together, each strand consisting of 18 threads. A number of other dimensional details are prescribed, and a careful description of the wax to be used in making the standard candle.

=References=
<references/>

Beeswax

2017-02-21T17:01:35Z

Mireya:

[[File:Beeswax-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Beeswax (Genus Apis)=
Genus Apis is the genus that plays the most important economic role in the beeswax commerce. There are different species belonging to this genus: the giant bee (apis dorsata), a medium sized bee (apis indica), the tiny East Indian bee (apis florea) and the domesticated honey bee (apis mellifica). Originally, the honeybee was named Apis mellifera by Linnaeus in 1758, and he changed the name later to Apis mellifica. In a more general sense, the term Apis mellifera denotes honey carriers or bearers; while Apis mellifica produce honeycombs of almost pure wax, commercially known as “genuine beeswax”.

There are many races of Apis mellifica all over the world. For example: the black bees of Caucasia, Carniola and Banat; in Great Britain and Europe exists the brown bees. In Cyprus, northern Italy and the Holy Land, and propagated in the United States we can find the yellow bees, and all these exist in variants or strains with mixed colors. The waxes obtained from these races do not differ much in physical characteristics or chemical constants.

There are other bees that are used as honey makers and wax producers; for example the Apis facista in northern Africa (regarded as the prettiest bee in the world), the Apis adansonni in Senegal; Apis caffra and Apis scutelata in southern Africa, Apis unicolor (regarded as the blackest bee) in Madagascar and it has been introduced to other parts of the world. The previously mentioned East Indian species Apis dorsata, Apis florea and Apis indica; produce a different wax from the ones mentioned above, they produce Ghedda wax.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 76</ref>

=Secretion of Wax by the Bee=

The wax scales are secreted by eight wax glands on the under side of the abdomen of the worker bee. The wax is liquid when secreted, since it is derived from the blood of the bee by cell action. The secretion rapidly hardens to a pearly scale, more or less transparent, like mica. The wax scale is removed from the abdomen by a hind leg of the insect, and received by the mandible of a co-worker, where it is chewed with a secretion, before being placed in the cell of the comb. The comb is constructed in a hexagonal pattern, which provides structural strength and maximum economy of space. In the natural comb there are 4.83 cells to the linear inch, or 825 cells to the square decimeter. The bees are believed to deploy about eight pounds of honey to secrete one pound of wax.

Comb foundations are provided for hive-bees so as not to waste honey; 1.5 to 3 pounds of wax can be obtained from ten combs when they are scraped. The largest amount of wax is in the foundation and in the capping, since the sidewalls are remarkably thin. A practice to be severely condemned is the artificial manufacture of comb foundations from hydro-generated vegetable oil wax, ceresin, paraffin, or other false waxes, as such spurious foundations eventually may find their way into the beeswax of commerce as highly undesirable impurities.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 77</ref>

=Coloration of Beeswax=

Vansell and Bisson of the California Agricultural Experimental Station made a study of the coloration of beeswax. Freshly secreted beeswax is white, but it readily absorbs colors from various sources. Some pollens carry yellow substances, which are liberated to the beeswax as either solid or liquid state. A cell in a new bee comb, as well as the walls of the adjacent cells, become very yellow when melted (in glass) with fresh pollens collected from various plants. It was found that color was liberated from pollen much more slowly after the grains had become dry. For example, the color imparted to white beeswax by the golden pollen of the sunflower, Helianthus bolanderi, is a bright orange-yellow; that of the golden pollen of the California poppy, Papaver californicum, a brilliant orange yellow; that of the bright yellow dandelion, Taraxacum officinale Weber, a bright yellow; that of the brown pollen of the white clover, Trifolium repens L., only a trace of yellow; that of the pollens of alfalfa, flax, hollyhock, and many others, none.

Much of the crude bees wax imported from Cuba and other Caribbean countries is distinctly brown. It has a strong beeswax odor, masked to some extent by a tobacco-like smell. The pollen of tobacco plants is said to be responsible for both the off-odor and the off-color of this wax. Beeswax from South American sources is often lacking in pronounced color or odor, even though free from the adulteration by paraffine, sometimes found in Chilean beeswax. Crude beeswax from West Africa has a definite yellow color and a strong beeswax odor, and is characteristically blackened at the edges of the pieces. Some of these characteristics distinguish one beeswax from another as to origin. The aromatic bodies and coloring matter in beeswax are soluble in 80 per cent ethanol and insoluble in petroleum ether.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 77</ref>

=Rendering of Crude Beeswax=

Crude beeswax is usually rendered from the frames and from scrapings by melting over hot water or under solar heat. In the hot-water extraction process the container is partially filled with boiling water, and the beeswax from broken combs or cappings added. It is common practice to soak the combs in cold water for several hours before melting, so that when the wax is melted over the boiling water, it will not be absorbed by its impurities, and also to wash out the water-soluble substances. The melted wax floats on the surface; and is strained with the water through a wet cloth to remove bee and cocoon fragments and other foreign matter. Upon cooling, the wax solidifies into a cake on top of the water; dirt is removed by scraping the bottom of the cake. Dragging the mass with cheesecloth fastened to a hoop, and permitting the wax to harden on cooling can also accomplish the straining. The cake is then removed.

If the combs are rendered on a large scale the melted wax is removed from the hot-water container by decantation from the surface; any residue is placed in layers of straw and pressed to obtain more wax, the straw acting as a filter. A wax press employing hot water for this purpose is available; the product is called "press wax". High-or-low pressure steam is a good indirect source of heat for melting wax. The water used in the melting process should have a low mineral content. Stainless steel or aluminum is desirable for wax-processing equipment. Wood or glass makes an excellent container for the manipulation of wax, which will become contaminated by the use of iron equipment.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 78</ref>

=Solar Extraction Process=

In the "solar extraction process” exposing it to the sun in a solar extractor can render the crude beeswax from the cappings. Sun melting reduces the intensity of its color and removes soluble contaminating substances by coagulation. Vansell and Bisson state that one large producer in the Sacramento Valley in California, in preparing cappings for solar extraction, lets the cuttings fall into cloth boxes, which are supported over a long, shallow draining trough, thus allowing the cappings honey to run into the general stream from the extractor. As each box is filled, it is slid along the rack and replaced by an empty one. When the cappings are sufficiently drained of honey, each box is transferred to an individual solar extractor. A long, narrow extractor could be constructed to accommodate several of these boxes, thus increasing the efficiency of the process. Galvanized iron is satisfactory construction material for the solar extractor.

In preparing the best quality of wax for commerce it is common practice to pare off the capping of the honey cells and then place the comb in a centrifugal machine (extractor), which removes the honey and leaves the comb undamaged so that it can be replaced in the hive to be refilled by the bees, and thus save the honey they would use in making a new comb. Such a prepared wax is of a good grade, as it is free from propolis, a greenish brown, resinous substance that the bees use in sealing the cells in the comb and for attaching it to its support. The bees obtain the resin from the branches and leaves of the birch, ash, elm, balsam, poplar and other trees. When a comb has been refilled by the bees several times and is melted down, the wax is very brown, and strong in odor.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 78</ref>

=Sources of Beeswax=
More than fifty years ago Herbig attempted to show the world-wide distribution of beeswax in the following manner. Europe: Germany, Italy, Turkey, Portugal, and France. Africa: Egypt, East and West Africa. Asia: Syria, Ceylon, Singapore, Bombay, Madras and Burma. America: California, Mexico, Cuba, Haiti, Jamaica, Domingo, Brazil and Chile. It will be noted that the list is a comprehensive if not complete one. There is no other natural wax known that has so wide a distribution as beeswax. The United States imports much of its beeswax from Brazil, the Caribbean countries, Chile, and Benguella in West Africa.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 79</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
!colspan="6"|Top 5 beeswax producers (2013, in tonnes)
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|India
| style="text-align:right;" |23,200
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Ethiopia
| style="text-align:right;" |5,000
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Argentina
| style="text-align:right;" |4,700
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Turkey
| style="text-align:right;" |4,235
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Republic of Korea
| style="text-align:right;" |3,063
|-style="font-style:italic; text-align:center"
|colspan="2" |Source: [http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E UN FAOSTAT]<ref>[http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division]</ref>
|}

=Constants of different grades of Beeswax=

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
! style="text-align:left;"| Beeswax
! Specific Gravity at 15 ºC
! Melting Point ºC
! [[Acid Value|Acid Value]]
! [[Saponification value|Saponification Value]]
! [[Ester value|Ester Value]]
! Ratio Value (Ester Value divided by Acid Value)
! Unsaponi- fiables %
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Yellow Beeswax (Cera Flava)
|0.958 - 0.970
|62 - 64.0
|17 - 23
|87.0 - 97
| 70 - 80.0
|3.3 - 4.0
|50 - 56
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|White Beeswax (Cera Alba)
|0.958 - 0.970
|62 - 64.0
|18 - 24
|90.0 - 102
| 70 - 80.0
|3.3 - 4.0
|50 - 56
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Extraction Beeswax (Unbleached)
|0.953 - 0.957
|61 - 62.5
|23 - 27
|92.0 - 95
|66 - 70.5
|2.4 - 3.0
|50 - 56
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Extraction Beeswax (Bleached)
|0.970 - 0.984
|69 - 72.5
|22 - 30
|91.5 - 104
|69 - 77.5
|2.5 - 3.3
|50 - 56
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 133</ref>

=References=
<references/>

Marine animal waxes

2017-02-21T15:51:11Z

Mireya: Created page with "=Description= Spermaceti is a wax found in teh head cavities of the sperm whale, ''Physeter macrocephalus Linné (P. catadan)'', which is the largest of the toothed whales or..."

=Description=
Spermaceti is a wax found in teh head cavities of the sperm whale, ''Physeter macrocephalus Linné (P. catadan)'', which is the largest of the toothed whales or cachalots. Spermaceti also occurs to a much lesser extent in the blubber oil of the sperm whale, an in the bottlenose whale, ''Balaena rostrata'' and a few other cetaceans, but not in the oil of the whalebone whales.

The sperm whale is 60 to 80 feet length, with an enormous head, 30 feet in circumference, in which there is a large hollow on the upper surface of the skull, filled with a peculiar fatty tissue. When the spongy mass is removed from the head, the oil is allowed to separate by draining. Spermaceti is in the oil in a dissolved state while the animal is living, but tends to concrete later on. The resultant mass, after draining the oil, is boiled in a 2 to 3 per cent lye solution to clean it; it is then washed free from alkali, and the wax melted and moulded into cakes.

One sperm whale yields upward of three tons of oil and over 500 pounds of spermaceti. The blubber oil can be hydrogenated to obtain a spermaceti wax that is a trifle harder and higher in melting point (46 - 50ºC) than the natural spermaceti (m. 43 - 47ºC). In the refineries the strained oil is allowed to stand in refrigerator for several days at a temperature of 0ºC (32ºF) and then pressed to produce what is known as "stearine-free" oil. Spermaceti is also recovered from the press residues by re-pressing at a higher temperature<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 141</ref>.

=Properties=
Spermaceti is white, somewhat translucent, in slightly unctuous masses of a scaly, crystalline fracture and pearly luster, with a very faint odor, and a bland, mild taste. It becomes yellowish and somewhat rancid on long exposure to air.

Since spermaceti has in the past been adulterated with paraffin or other substances, considerable attention has been given by cosmetics and pharmaceutical authorities to the promulgation of suitable standards of physical and chemical constants to define its purity. The present spermaceti of commerce has a specific gravity of 0.938 to 0.944 at 25ºC, and of 0.842 at 100ºC. The refractive index of spermaceti is 1.4397, or almost identical with the ''cetyl palmitate'', its principal constituent. Spermaceti is soluble in hot acetone and alcohol, in carbo tetrachloride, chloroform, ether, naphtha, and turpentine. It has an acid value 2 - 5.2, saponification number 108 - 134, iodine number 4.8 - 5.9, and unsaponifiable 51 - 53.8 per cent<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 143</ref>.

=Purity and Uses of Spermaceti=
As spermaceti is occasionally adulterated with stearic acid or paraffin, or both, it is often necessary to test it for purity. In medicine, spermaceti is used as a demulcent in irritation of the mucous membrane, but it has no remedial properties. An emulsion of this sort can be made by mixing spermaceti first with half its weight of olive oil, then with powdered gum arabic, and lastly with water. Spermaceti is used chiefly as a base of ointments, cerates, etc. Spermaceti Cerate is made by melting together 10 parts of spermaceti and 35 parts of white beeswax, and then adding 55 parts of warmed olive oil. Spermaceti is used in cosmetics, in the finishing and lustering of linens, in laundry wax, and in special soaps and emulsifying agents.

Spermaceti is used to a limited extent in the manufacture of candles, and a little beeswax or other plastic wax is then added to make candles less crystalline and brittle. It is important to note that spermaceti is the wax used in the candle which defines our unit of candlepower. The standard candle of Great Britain, which was also legalized in the United States, is one which weight one-sixth of a pound and burns 120 grains of spermaceti per hour. In the manufacture of the English standard sperm candle it is prescribed by the Metropolitan Gas Referees in London that the wicks shall be made of three strands of cotton plaited together, each strand consisting of 18 threads. A number of other dimensional details are prescribed, and a careful description of the wax to be used in making the standard candle.

=References=
<references/>

Carnauba wax

2017-02-21T15:29:15Z

Mireya:

[[File:Carnauba45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Carnauba wax is obtained from the leaves of a species of an American genus of palm designated as ''Copernica cerifera'' Martius, named in honor of Copernicus. The name ''carnauba'' is believed to be a corruption of the Tupy ''carnahyba'', compounded from ''caraná'', or ''carandá'', meaning scaly, thick-skinned, or thick-barked, and ''yba'', meaning tree or palm.

''C. cerifera'' grows in the dry desolate country in the region of Ceará, northeastern Brazil. It grows in lesser quantities in the south of Brazil and the Chaco country in northern Argentina and Paraguay. The wax-gathering industry is centered in Parahyba moving northward to Rio Grande do Norte, and Ceará, but also extends eastward to Piauhy (Piauí) and the state of Maranhao. The largest export center is Bahia on the Atlantic Seaboard. The first large shipments of the wax were made from Ceará in 1854. In Europe the wax has been an article of trade for more than a century. About two-thirds of the product now comes into the United States.

The carnauba is a straight-trunked palm of slow growth, attaining an average height of 25 to 35 feet, but seldom sore than 40 to 50 feet even after 50 years of growth. The bark is scaly, rough, and thick, and the leaves grow out from yard-long petioles in wide serried fan shapes. The tree reproduces prolifically. The ovaloid fruit resembles a hazelnut, and when ripe it falls to the ground, where dense clumps of shoots spring up, some of which survive to form saplings.

The flowers are monoecious, very small and numerous, and grow from an appendix in the axils of the leaves. During the dry months the leaves ande petioles exude a wax through the pores. Nature provides this wax to prevent excessive evaporation of water from the plant. The summer sun from July to December seems to stimulate the production of wax, altough the available wax may even increase with the occasional winter rains. The best quality of wax is obtained from the young tender leaves which are gathered three times from September to March.

There are two varieties of the carnauba palm south of the banks of the Sao Francisco River, which the natives distinguish as white and red. A black variety also exists. The palm have no master root; the roots stretch out over the surface of the ground in search of moisture. The carnauba palm prefers to grow along the banks of rivers and lakes, but it is also found in small isolated groves from the damp lowlands along the coast to the forest of the interior<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 156</ref>.

=Economic Value of the Carnauba Palm=
The carnauba palm is of great value to the ''sertanejos'', the inhabitants of these flat semiarid lands, and the historical evolution of the Brazilian ''setao'' is closely allied with this rough-barked, fan-topped palm, which supplies him not only food, drink, and a cash crop, but also fibers for clothing, timber for housebuilding, and even his light. The timber is hard and useful for laths to take plaster, pilings which will resist the brackish waters, bridges, fences, and excellent furniture. It is almost impervious to the attack of insects. The bark may be used as firewood. The leaves are utilized for window and door shades. There is food value in the tender end shoots and from them can also be made wine, vinegar, and a saccharine substance. The bunches of fruit, rust-colored when ripe and dried, may be crushed for cooking oil. The roasted and pulverized fruit may be brewed to a coffee-like drink. A starchy flour like manioc flour can be prepared from the medullary pith, or the pith may be fermented to an alcoholic drink. A starchy flour like manioc flour can be prepared from the medullary pith, or the pith may be fermented to an alcoholic drink. A medicinal is extracted from the roots. The saplings and tender shoot are fed to cattle in case of drought.

The important hat industry of Ceará uses the superior quality of carnauba leaves, turning them into hats similar to Panamas which are shipped everywhere in Brazil. The natives sleep in hammocks made from the fibers. Fine cordage, nets, baskets, mats, and curtains are also woven from the fibers. The fiber from the petiole is made into brooms and brushes. Although only the wax has given the carnauba palm universal renown, it can be readily understood that there is no plant in the existence that is of greater value to the Brazilian native. For light he melts a mall portion of allow with the wax, and solidifies the melt around a cotton wick to form a candle. The carnauba candle, however, is not the best source of illumination!<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 156</ref>

=Characteristics=
Carnauba wax is amorphous, hard, though, lustrous and has a pleasing odor. It breaks with a clean fracture. Chemically, it is a mixture of hydrocarbons, higher alcohols and their esters, and possibly lactones with a small amount of inorganic matter. Its exact composition is not known. It is saponified by strong alkalies and is the hardest, highest-melting, natural commercial wax, except for some crude grades of ouricury wax. It is added to other waxes to increase their melting pint, hardness, toughness, and luster and to decrease stickiness, plasticity and crystallizing tendencies<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 115</ref>.

= Properties=

{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |184 - 196 ºF (84 -91 ºC)
|-
|Specific Gravity, 15 ºC
|style="text-align:center" |0.990 - 0.999
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |4 - 9
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |78 - 87
|-
|Unsaponifiable Matter
|style="text-align:center" |52 - 55%
|-
|Iodine Number
|style="text-align:center" |13.1 - 13.5
|-
|Acetyl Number
|style="text-align:center" |51 - 60
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |yellow, green, gray, brown
|-
|Refractive Index, 60 ºC
|style="text-align:center" |1.463
|-
|Dielectric Constant
|style="text-align:center" |2.67 - 4.20
|-
|Effective A.C. Conductivity
|style="text-align:center" |250 - 310
|-
|Volume Resistivity
|style="text-align:center" |0.5 - 4
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 115</ref>

=Solubility=
Soluble in: hot alcohol, benzol, carbon tetrachloride, ether, dioxane, chloroform, trichloroethylene, isopropyl ether<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 116</ref>.

=Uses=
Candles, polishes, lubricants, greases, floor and automobile waxes, insulating materials, carbon paper, chalk, matches, soaps, salves, phonograph records, plastics, cosmetics, protective coatings and paper coating.

Addition of large percentages of cumarone resins to carnauba wax increases its resistance to fracture (toughness) and makes in stringy when melted. The melting point of carnauba wax is raised 3 ºC by the addition of 1% Acrawax. Its flexibility is increased by the addition of 2% or more of beeswax, microcrystalline paraffin wax, or oleic acid.

Carnauba wax, dissolved in mineral oil, wets pigments and other insoluble particles quite well better than most oils. Although a carnauba wax-oil mixture has good wetting properties, it sets fast (in thin layers) and does not penetrate rapidly into paper, textiles, etc. Solutions of carnauba wax precipitate more readily than those of other natural waxes on addition of non-solvents. Evaporation of solutions of carnauba wax yields non-continuous powdery layers rather than films<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 116</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

Waxes from animals

2017-02-21T15:14:24Z

Mireya:

Waxes from animals can be obtained from land and marine animals.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 121</ref>

:1. [[Land animal waxes (Woolwax)]]
:2. [[Marine animal waxes]]

The wax with a commercial importance from the land-animal group is the woolwax. It is separated from the hair-grease of the sheep, goat, llama and dromedary and it is often called “wool fat”, but since it contains no glycerides (of which fats are composed), the name is not actually appropriate. The crude soft wax obtained from the hair of the sheep is called “Wool grease”, or more specifically “degras”. In wool washing, the free fatty acids and lower esters are saponified to soaps, and the portion that is un-saponified is known as wool fat. The highly refined form of the wool wax is referred to as Hydrous Lanolin, because water has been blended with the wool fat after alkali and centrifugal treatment. If the water is entirely removed, then it is called Anhydrous Lanolin.

There are two types of marine animal waxes: solid marine waxes and liquid marine waxes. For the first group, spermaceti is the most important; and in the liquid type we find sperm oil and closely allied oils, any marine oil free, or nearly free, from glycerides. Liquid marine waxes usually contain considerable amounts of esters of unsaturated alcohols and acids, whereas the solid types contain only esters of saturated components.

=References=
<references/>

Ricebran wax

2017-02-20T21:31:34Z

Mireya:

[[File:ricebran-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Both bran and bran coats obtained in the milling of rice, ''Oryza sativa'' L., family Gramineae, contain a lipid wax. Rice bran contains 15 to 18% and rice polishings 20% of oil. The commercial yield (of edible rice oil) is, however, more like 5 to 7%, varying with the temperature at which the extraction is made, the solvent used, source and history of the bran, and other factors. The yield of wax, if recovered from the crude rice oil, is somewhat less than 2%, or less tan 0.4% on the bran basis.

Oil from rice bran has now become an edible oil of commercial value; hence ricebran wax may become of importance as a by-product. Solvent extracted from the freshly milled rice bran, the oil is low in free fatty acid. It can be converted by conventional refining and bleaching procedures into a clear, light-colored product having a good flavor. The bran from which the oil has been extracted is bagged and sold as an animal feed.

The crude wax containing glycerides may be separated from crude rice oil by wintering at 20-25ºC, and then treated with a solvent such as 5% methanol in commercial n-hexane, to effect a sharp separation of soluble and insoluble parts. Without the use of solvent the wax from the tank settlings cannot be effectively separated by filtration methods<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 237</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

File:Ricebran-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:31:05Z

Mireya:

Sugarcane wax

2017-02-20T21:30:34Z

Mireya:

[[File:sugarcane-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Crude cane wax is extracted from cachaza, a by-product in the manufacture of raw sugar. Cachaza is the filter-press mud separated by sedimentation and filtration from the cane juice particles and the precipitate formed by the action of heat and chemical treatment on the colloid, and is removed in the clarification of the cane juice. The precipitate contains the cane wax that was originally on the surface of the cane stalk before it was crushed. The cachaza is removed from the cane juice, after chemical treatment and heating, by sedimentation and filtration.

When the filter cake is removed from the filters, it is mixed with a solvent which dissolves the cane wax as well as other soluble substances. The solvent is then evaporated, recovered and reused. The mass residue is waxy and contains about 50% sugar-cane wax, 30% sugar-cane fatty oil and 20% resinous matter.

In a refining process, the crude sugar-cane wax is dispersed in a solvent which readily dissolves the fatty-oil fraction and leaves the hard wax and resinous matter as a suspended solid. This slurry is filtered to remove the soluble fatty-oil fraction which is recovered as a green semifluid paste.

The sugar-cane wax and the resinous matter from which the sugar-cane fatty oil has been removed are now reslurried with additional solvent and heated until the cane wax melts. At this temperature, the resinous matter separates from the wax and is removed by decantation. The light layer containing the sugar-cane wax is then evaporated to remove all the solvent, leaving the refined cane wax which is cast into pans<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 127</ref>.

=Properties=

{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |79 - 81ºC
|-
|Penetration (100g/5sec/25ºC)
|style="text-align:center" |2 (max)
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |Brown
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |23 - 28
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |65 -77
|-
|Acetyl Value
|style="text-align:center" |25
|-
|Iodine Number
|style="text-align:center" |17
|-
|Peroxice Number
|style="text-align:center" |0
|-
|Ash
|style="text-align:center" |0.004 %
|-
|Specific Gravity
|style="text-align:center" |0.9830
|-
|Refractive Index
|style="text-align:center" |(n23) 1.5199, (n90) 1.4435
|}
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 227</ref>

=Solubility=
Sugarcane wax is partially soluble in cold alcohol, 5.9 g dissolve in 100 ml U.S.P. ethanol (95%) at 25ºC; and it is partially soluble to a much greater extent in hot ethanol. Ten parts of cane wax dissolve in 100 ml of butanol at 57ºC, in 100 ml of benzene at 67ºC, in 100 ml of ethyl acetate at 44ºC, in 100 ml of turpentine at 35ºC and 100 ml of light naphtha at 39ºC. Cane wax is partially soluble in ethylene dichloride; 1.6 g dissolve in 100 ml at 37ºC. It is quite soluble in chlorofom, but very sparingly soluble in cold ether. Hot ethyl ether dissolves it to some extent, depositing small crystal grains on cooling. The wax is soluble in hot amyl alcohol. The highly refined wax is reported as melting at 82ºC and solidifying at 80ºC and has a specific gravity (d10) of 0.961. When made into a taper it burns with a fine white flame like spermaceti<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 227</ref>.

=Uses=
As early as 1914 sugarcane wax was known to be useful as a partial substitute for beeswax in the stout, dark-colored candles of the Russian Orthodox churches. In 1918 Rindl referred to its use to a limited extent in teh polish and electrical industries; for gramophone records; and as a replacement wax in general for carnauba, beeswax, and montan wax in other industries<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 229</ref>

=References=
<references/>

File:Sugarcane-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:29:55Z

Mireya:

Retamo wax

2017-02-20T21:29:26Z

Mireya:

[[File:retamo-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Retamo wax is obtained from a species of plant known as ''Bulnesia retama'', which is a shrub or mall tree (3-5 ft) native to Argentina. The wax is found on the branches of this plant which grows in arid lands at the foot of the Andes Cordillera mountains. The branches, generally harvested in summer, dried to loosen the wax from the cellulosic material, and then boiled in water acidified with sulfuric acid to readily free the wax<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 197</ref>.

=Properties=
{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |76 - 78 ºC
|-
|[[Acid value]]
|style="text-align:center" |48.6
|-
|[[Saponification value|Saponification number]]
|style="text-align:center" |87.3
|-
|[[Ester value]]
|style="text-align:center" |38.7
|-
|[[Iodine value|Iodine number]]
|style="text-align:center" |4.5 - 5
|-
|Acetyl number
|style="text-align:center" |17
|-
|Hydrocarbon content
|style="text-align:center" |27%
|-
|Acetone soluble
|style="text-align:center" |2.5 - 3%
|-
|Ash
|style="text-align:center" |0.03%
|-
|Moisture
|style="text-align:center" |1%
|-
|Suspended matter
|style="text-align:center" |0.14%
|-
|Isopropanol insoluble
|style="text-align:center" |None
|-
|Refractive Index
|style="text-align:center" |1.448
|-
|Penetration 100g/75ºF/5 sec
|style="text-align:center" |0.5 - 1.0
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |Café au lait
|-
|Odor
|style="text-align:center" |Odorless
|}
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=Uses=
This wax is being used successfully in the manufacture of shoe polishes, floor polishes, automobile polishes, in certain tannery finishes, edge inks for shoes, carbon paper, etc. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=References=
<references/>

File:Retamo-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:28:58Z

Mireya:

Carnauba wax

2017-02-20T21:28:20Z

Mireya:

[[File:Carnauba45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Carnauba wax is obtained from the leaves of a species of an American genus of palm designated as ''Copernica cerifera'' Martius, named in honor of Copernicus. The name ''carnauba'' is believed to be a corruption of the Tupy ''carnahyba'', compounded from ''caraná'', or ''carandá'', meaning scaly, thick-skinned, or thick-barked, and ''yba'', meaning tree or palm.

''C. cerifera'' grows in the dry desolate country in the region of Ceará, northeastern Brazil. It grows in lesser quantities in the south of Brazil and the Chaco country in northern Argentina and Paraguay. The wax-gathering industry is centered in Parahyba moving northward to Rio Grande do Norte, and Ceará, but also extends eastward to Piauhy (Piauí) and the state of Maranhao. The largest export center is Bahia on the Atlantic Seaboard. The first large shipments of the wax were made from Ceará in 1854. In Europe the wax has been an article of trade for more than a century. About two-thirds of the product now comes into the United States.

The carnauba is a straight-trunked palm of slow growth, attaining an average height of 25 to 35 feet, but seldom sore than 40 to 50 feet even after 50 years of growth. The bark is scaly, rough, and thick, and the leaves grow out from yard-long petioles in wide serried fan shapes. The tree reproduces prolifically. The ovaloid fruit resembles a hazelnut, and when ripe it falls to the ground, where dense clumps of shoots spring up, some of which survive to form saplings.

The flowers are monoecious, very small and numerous, and grow from an appendix in the axils of the leaves. During the dry months the leaves ande petioles exude a wax through the pores. Nature provides this wax to prevent excessive evaporation of water from the plant. The summer sun from July to December seems to stimulate the production of wax, altough the available wax may even increase with the occasional winter rains. The best quality of wax is obtained from the young tender leaves which are gathered three times from September to March.

There are two varieties of the carnauba palm south of the banks of the Sao Francisco River, which the natives distinguish as white and red. A black variety also exists. The palm have no master root; the roots stretch out over the surface of the ground in search of moisture. The carnauba palm prefers to grow along the banks of rivers and lakes, but it is also found in small isolated groves from the damp lowlands along the coast to the forest of the interior<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 156</ref>.

=Economic Value of the Carnauba Palm=
The carnauba palm is of great value to the ''sertanejos'', the inhabitants of these flat semiarid lands, and the historical evolution of the Brazilian ''setao'' is closely allied with this rough-barked, fan-topped palm, which supplies him not only food, drink, and a cash crop, but also fibers for clothing, timber for housebuilding, and even his light. The timber is hard and useful for laths to take plaster, pilings which will resist the brackish waters, bridges, fences, and excellent furniture. It is almost impervious to the attack of insects. The bark may be used as firewood. The leaves are utilized for window and door shades. There is food value in the tender end shoots and from them can also be made wine, vinegar, and a saccharine substance. The bunches of fruit, rust-colored when ripe and dried, may be crushed for cooking oil. The roasted and pulverized fruit may be brewed to a coffee-like drink. A starchy flour like manioc flour can be prepared from the medullary pith, or the pith may be fermented to an alcoholic drink. A starchy flour like manioc flour can be prepared from the medullary pith, or the pith may be fermented to an alcoholic drink. A medicinal is extracted from the roots. The saplings and tender shoot are fed to cattle in case of drought.

The important hat industry of Ceará uses the superior quality of carnauba leaves, turning them into hats similar to Panamas which are shipped everywhere in Brazil. The natives sleep in hammocks made from the fibers. Fine cordage, nets, baskets, mats, and curtains are also woven from the fibers. The fiber from the petiole is made into brooms and brushes. Although only the wax has given the carnauba palm universal renown, it can be readily understood that there is no plant in the existence that is of greater value to the Brazilian native. For light he melts a mall portion of allow with the wax, and solidifies the melt around a cotton wick to form a candle. The carnauba candle, however, is not the best source of ilumination!<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 156</ref>

=Characteristics=
Carnauba wax is amorphous, hard, though, lustrous and has a pleasing odor. It breaks with a clean fracture. Chemically, it is a mixture of hydrocarbons, higher alcohols and their esters, and possibly lactones with a small amount of inorganic matter. Its exact composition is not known. It is saponified by strong alkalies and is the hardest, highest-melting, natural commercial wax, except for some crude grades of ouricury wax. It is added to other waxes to increase their melting pint, hardness, toughness, and luster and to decrease stickiness, plasticity and crystallizing tendencies<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 115</ref>.

= Properties=

{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |184 - 196 ºF (84 -91 ºC)
|-
|Specific Gravity, 15 ºC
|style="text-align:center" |0.990 - 0.999
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |4 - 9
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |78 - 87
|-
|Unsaponifiable Matter
|style="text-align:center" |52 - 55%
|-
|Iodine Number
|style="text-align:center" |13.1 - 13.5
|-
|Acetyl Number
|style="text-align:center" |51 - 60
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |yellow, green, gray, brown
|-
|Refractive Index, 60 ºC
|style="text-align:center" |1.463
|-
|Dielectric Constant
|style="text-align:center" |2.67 - 4.20
|-
|Effective A.C. Conductivity
|style="text-align:center" |250 - 310
|-
|Volume Resistivity
|style="text-align:center" |0.5 - 4
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 115</ref>

=Solubility=
Soluble in: hot alcohol, benzol, carbon tetrachloride, ether, dioxane, chloroform, trichloroethylene, isopropyl ether<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 116</ref>.

=Uses=
Candles, polishes, lubricants, greases, floor and automobile waxes, insulating materials, carbon paper, chalk, matches, soaps, salves, phonograph records, plastics, cosmetics, protective coatings and paper coating.

Addition of large percentages of cumarone resins to carnauba wax increases its resistance to fracture (toughness) and makes in stringy when melted. The melting point of carnauba wax is raised 3 ºC by the addition of 1% Acrawax. Its flexibility is increased by the addition of 2% or more of beeswax, microcrystalline paraffin wax, or oleic acid.

Carnauba wax, dissolved in mineral oil, wets pigments and other insoluble particles quite well better than most oils. Although a carnauba wax-oil mixture has good wetting properties, it sets fast (in thin layers) and does not penetrate rapidly into paper, textiles, etc. Solutions of carnauba wax precipitate more readily than those of other natural waxes on addition of non-solvents. Evaporation of solutions of carnauba wax yields non-continuous powdery layers rather than films<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 116</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

File:Carnauba45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:27:20Z

Mireya:

Montan wax

2017-02-20T21:25:55Z

Mireya:

[[File:montan-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Montan wax is a hard, brittle, lustrous wax extracted from lignites, principally in Central Europe and also mined in Australia, New Zealand, Czechoslovakia, Russia, Great Britain and in the United States. The coal is granulated, dried and solvent extracted to remove the wax. The crude wax is usually further processed to produce an acceptable market product. One type of refining is by vacuum distillation, using steam and producing the so-called "double-refined" montan wax. In a second a more important refining process, the wax may be deresinified by solvent processing, and then treated by chromic acid oxidation. The crude wax is dark brown and the refined wax of a yellowish color. The so-called white montan wax is a mixture of refined montan wax with paraffin wax. Depending on the geographical occurrence, the resin content of the wax varies. For example, the German deposits are noted for their relatively low resin content, thus yielding a satisfactory product more economically<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 109</ref>.

=Process of Extraction=
Crude montan wax is obtained from lignite (brown coal) by extracting it with a suitable solvent. The lignite is crushed or granulated and dried to a 10-12% moisture content. The granules are then sieved to remove powder therefrom, and the powder-free granules are extracted with a mixture containing about 85% benzene and 15%unrefined wood alcohol containing methyl and isopropyl alcohols. This extraction is normally carried out at 90-100ºC. the alcohols dissolve the cell walls of the brown coal granules and free the wax therefrom, thereby enabling the wax to be dissolved by the benzene. The wax solution is separated, and the solvent distilled off, leaving the crude montan wax as a residue. The crude montan wax is dark-colored and contains resinous and asphaltic impurities. The yield of wax is 10-18%<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 361</ref>.

=Purification and Refining=
The crude montan waxes are somewhat limited in their utility because of their dark color. In order to use them in the manufacture of esterified waxes, it is necessary to remove the excessive amount of resinous and asphaltic matters, and also to lighten the color. Various methods have been proposed and used to produce a montan wax of sufficiently light color to enable its use in those instances where light color is required. Strong acids have generally been used to refine the wax, although strong alkalies have also been employed. Distillation at low pressures produces a light-colored wax, but of altered composition. Selective solvents are also used as a means of purification of the semirefined wax. Although the various methods of bleaching result in a product of light color, the bleached waxes so produced tend to crystallize under certain conditions of use, ostensibly because of their high content of free wax acids of high molecular weight (26 to 29 atoms)<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 362</ref>.

= Properties=

{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |72 -92 ºC
|-
|Specific Gravity
|style="text-align:center" |1.00
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |15 - 85
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |58 - 89
|-
|Unsaponifiables
|style="text-align:center" |35 - 45%
|-
|Iodine Number
|style="text-align:center" |7.75
|-
|Acetyl Number
|style="text-align:center" |11.2
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |tan, brown
|-
|Dielectric Constant
|style="text-align:center" |2 - 68
|-
|Effective A.C. Conductivity
|style="text-align:center" |25 -55
|-
|Volume Resistivity
|style="text-align:center" |270 - 630
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 110</ref>

=Solubility=
Montan wax is soluble in: benzol, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform, dichloroethylene, isopropyl ether, naphtha, tetralin, toluol, trichloroethylene, turpentine, xylol.

Montan wax solutions set more slowly than carnauba wax solutions and, therefore, should be filled into containers at a lower temperature. Pure montan wax can scarcely be scratched by the fingernail. It breaks with a conchoidal fracture. It is a good solvent (when melted) for basic dyes and shows good wetting and flow in oil solutions. It is the hardest of the natural nonvegetable waxes and is fairly resistant to oxidation.

The bleached or highly refined wax loses some of the listed characteristics, becoming softer and less emulsifiable<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 110</ref>.

=Uses=
It can be used in place of carnauba wax in many compositions because of its hardness, toughness, high melting point and emulsifiability; polish, rubber, printing-ink, electrical insulating compositions, leather finishes and dressings, carbon papers, grease, phonograph records, waterproofing<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 110</ref>.

=Comparison of the properties of different waxes=
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;
! style="text-align:left;"|
! German Montan Wax
! Devon Lignite Wax
! English Peat Wax
! Scottish Peat Wax
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Melting Point ºC
|style="text-align:center" |74 - 82
|style="text-align:center" |73 - 83
|style="text-align:center" |63 -68
|style="text-align:center" |64 - 73
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|[[Acid Value|Acid Value]]
|style="text-align:center" |33
|style="text-align:center" |30
|style="text-align:center" |50
|style="text-align:center" |48
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|[[Saponification value|Saponification Value]]
|style="text-align:center" |76
|style="text-align:center" |75
|style="text-align:center" |119
|style="text-align:center" |113
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|[[Ester value|Ester Value]]
|style="text-align:center" |43
|style="text-align:center" |45
|style="text-align:center" |69
|style="text-align:center" |65
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Resin Content, %
|style="text-align:center" |14
|style="text-align:center" |40
|style="text-align:center" |-
|style="text-align:center" |23
|-
! style="text-align:left;"|Specific Gravity at 20ºC
|style="text-align:center" |1.05
|style="text-align:center" |1.04
|style="text-align:center" |1.03
|style="text-align:center" |-
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 113</ref>

=References=
<references/>

File:Montan-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:25:20Z

Mireya:

File:Slack-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:23:06Z

Mireya:

Petrolatum wax

2017-02-20T21:22:39Z

Mireya:

[[File:petrolatum-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Petrolatum (mineral jelly), freed from its liquid and semiliquid hydrocarbons, yields an amorphous, white, translucent, plastic wax. It is commercially available under the name of Protowax or Fybrene. Its plastic and noncrystalline properties make it very useful. It also has good oil-holding capacity and prevents leakage or sweating out of oils. Thus, it can replace ceresin and ozokerite, where their low melting point is not undesirable<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 105</ref>.

Petrolatum contains hydrocarbons of the paraffin series such as hexadecane, heptadecane, octadecane, etc., probably up to dotriacontane, together with hydrocarbons of the olefin series, cetane, heptadecene, octadecene, etc. These olefin hydrocarbons are less concrete than the corresponding paraffins, and give petrolatum its oleaginous characteristics. Virgin amorphous petroleum wax and distillation residues are known to contain a fairly large proportion of isoparaffins of somewhat varying side chain length, although the normal paraffins greatly predominate in much smaller size crystals than in paraffin wax<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 419</ref>.

=Solubility=
Petrolatum (USP) has a specific gravity of not less than 0.815 nor more than 0.865 at 60ºC. It is insoluble in water; scantly soluble in cold or hot alcohol, but soluble in absolute ethanol, and readily soluble in ether, chloroform, turpentine, petroleum benzine, benzene, and fixed or volatile oils. It melts between 36 and 60ºC. The various grades of petrolatum (petroleum jelly) marketed for pharmaceutical and cosmetic use are designated as to melting point, consistency, and color<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 419</ref>.

=Properties=

{| class="wikitable"
! style="text-align:left;"|
! White Fybrene Wax
! Olive Fybrene Wax
|-
|Specific Gravity at 16ºC
|style="text-align:center" |0.896 - 0.899
|style="text-align:center" |0.896 - 0.899
|-
|API Gravity
|style="text-align:center" |26.0 - 26.5
|style="text-align:center" |26.0 - 26.5
|-
|ASTM Melting Point, ºC
|style="text-align:center" |53 - 56
|style="text-align:center" |54 - 57
|-
|ASTM Consistency (Method D-217)
|style="text-align:center" |50 - 85
|style="text-align:center" |30 - 50
|-
|ASTM Consistency (Method D-5)
|style="text-align:center" |150 - 300
|style="text-align:center" |75 - 200
|-
|Flash Point, ºC
|style="text-align:center" |238 - 243
|style="text-align:center" |238 - 243
|-
|Fire Point, ºC
|style="text-align:center" |271
|style="text-align:center" |271
|-
|Saybold Vis. at 99ºC
|style="text-align:center" |50 - 55
|style="text-align:center" |50 - 55
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |white
|style="text-align:center" |olive green
|-
|Ash, %
|style="text-align:center" |0.03
|style="text-align:center" |0.03
|-
|[[Saponification value|Saponification Value]]
|style="text-align:center" |0.3
|style="text-align:center" |0.3
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 105</ref>

=References=
<references/>

File:Petrolatum-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:22:00Z

Mireya:

Microcrystalline waxes

2017-02-20T21:21:03Z

Mireya:

[[File:microcrystalline-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
The designations of microcrystalline and amorphous waxes are used synonymously, although the first is a more accurate designation. These waxes differ from refined paraffin wax in crystal size and structure and in that they are tougher, more flexible, and have a higher tensile strength and melting point. They are also more adhesive and less lustrous and greasy. They bind solvents, oils, etc., much better than paraffin wax and thus prevent their sweating-out.
It should be noted in general that:
:1. High penetration value and/or high refractive index are indicative of flexibility.
:2. Waxes of high penetration value generally have more "tack."
:3. Flexibility is not a function of melting point.
:4. Oil content influences flexibility only to a limited degree.
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 84</ref>
=Differences between Microcrystalline and Paraffin waxes=
Paraffin and microcrystalline waxes are both separated from crude petroleum. However, the process of manufacture and the resulting products are quite different. As crude petroleum is subjected to distillation by heating in a still at atmospheric pressure, the following products are removed in the order of their increasing boiling points: light petroleum gases, gasoline, naphtha, kerosene, gas oil, paraffin wax distillate, light, neutral lubricating oil fractions, and a residue in the still which will not distill overhead at atmospheric pressure without decomposition. Paraffin wax is separated from the paraffin-wax distillate by a relatively simple process, while the microcrystalline wax, which cannot be distilled without decomposition, is separated by a complex series of solvent separations from the residue remaining in the still.

Paraffin wax, which has very little affinity for oil, is separated from the paraffin-wax distillate by cooling and filtering in a common plate-and-frame filter press where the wax is retained on canvas and is removed. Oil remaining in the wax filter cake is removed by a sweating process which involves casting the wax in thin sheets and gradually raising the temperature to a point slightly below the melting point of the wax. In this process, the remaining oil runs out of the wax sheet leaving a paraffin wax which usually contains less than 0.5% oil.

Microcrystalline wax is present in the residual fraction from the still along with heavy residual lubricating oil and asphalt. Asphalt must be removed from the residue by conventional sulfuric acid treatment or one of the newer selective solvent processes before the wax can be separated. The microcrystalline wax is then removed as crude petrolatum from the residual lubricating oil by any one of several dewaxing processes which involve dilution with an organic solvent, chilling at 20 - 40ºF (from -7ºC to 4ºC), and separation of the crude petrolatum in high-speed centrifuges. Microcrystalline wax has a great affinity for oil and thus the crude petrolatum still contains 40 - 70% oil. Therefore, it is then mixed with another portion of organic solvent, usually a different solvent from the one used in the initial dewaxing step, and heated to dissolve the wax and oil. The blend is then cooled to precipitate the wax which is separated from the oil and solvent on a filter. The solvent used for deoiling microcrystalline wax must be polar, whereas for deoiling paraffin wax other types of solvent may also be used. Since the microcrystalline wax holds oil very strongly, the last solvent step is usually repeated to give a wax with lower oil content.

The oil content of the microcrystalline waxes varies with the grade of wax but is usually 2 - 12% as contrasted with 0.5% in paraffin wax. Chemically, both paraffin and microcrystalline waxes consist of saturated hydrocarbon<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 84</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

File:Microcrystalline-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:20:14Z

Mireya:

Paraffin wax

2017-02-20T21:19:35Z

Mireya:

[[File:paraffin-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']

=Description=
Paraffin wax is the most widely used commercial wax. It is mainly derived from the high-boiling fractions of petroleum. It is commonly sold in slabs or blocks which exhibit crystallinity and various degrees of translucency. There is often a difference in melting point between the outside and inside of a slab because of nonhomogeneity. The crude paraffin waxes, containing varying amounts of volatile ingredients, are odorous and greasy. The refined grades are tasteless, odorless, harder and less greasy<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 17</ref>.

=Refined Paraffin Wax=
A refined mixture of associated solid paraffin hydrocarbons or paraffins is commonly designated as "paraffin wax". The word "paraffin" appears to be a French derivative of the Latin ''parum'', meaning "little", and ''affinis'', meaning "affinity"; in other words, a chemical inactive substance. The high-melting grades are customarily produced free form impurities and are referred to as "fully refined paraffin waxes" or by the simple designation or English term "paraffines"; for example, Asiatic ''paraffines'' are said to contain paraffins in the range of C17 to C34<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 401</ref>.

=Fully Refined Paraffin Wax=
The term "fully refined" is given to paraffin waxes which are water white, free from more than a mere trace of oil, odorless and tasteless, and hard or firm in consistency. The oil plus moisture content should be well within the allowable optimum of 0.5 per cent. Fully refined paraffin wax has a friable, coarse, fibrous crystalline structure which is translucent to opaque white in appearance, particularly noticeable when a slab of the wax is broken. Microscopically its structure when crystallized from a solvent shows more or less circular or ovan aggregates or platelets of cells; the fibrous caracteristic in large masses appears to be due to superimposed aggregates of platelets<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 401</ref>.

=Physical Tests on Paraffin Waxes=
Some of the more important physical tests on paraffin waxes include:
:1. Tensile strength, of the force necessary to pull the wax apart.
:2. Durometer hardness, or the maximum force which may be applied to a small plunger in a wax cake without forcing it further.
:3. Consistency, or force necessary to push a plunger into wax at a uniform rate, which is akin to viscosity.
:4. Flexibility, as determined by a bending test which measures force necessary to bend a plate of wax, and the angle to which it may be bent without cracking.
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 402</ref>

=Properties=
{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point (ASTM)
|style="text-align:center" |122 - 124 ºF (50 - 51 ºC)
|-
|Color (Saybolt)
|style="text-align:center" |25 - 30
|-
|Flash Point
|style="text-align:center" |395 ºF (202 ºC)
|-
|Penetration at 32 ºF (0 ºC)
|style="text-align:center" |16
|-
|Penetration at 77 ºF (25 ºC)
|style="text-align:center" |22
|-
|Penetration at 115 ºF (46 ºC)
|style="text-align:center" |221
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |0
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |0
|-
|Viscosity at 212 ºF (100 ºC)
|style="text-align:center" |39
|-
|Structure
|style="text-align:center" |Crystalline
|-
|Specific Gravity
|style="text-align:center" |0.880 - 0.915
|}
<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 18</ref>

=Solubility=
Soluble in: benzol, ether, chloroform, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, turpentine, petroleum, fixed oils. Insoluble in: water, cold alcohol<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 18</ref>.

=Uses=
Candles; waterproofing; sealing; lubricating; food; plant; fruit and vegetable protection; paper; polishes; cosmetics; crayons; pharmaceutical ointments and salves; electrical insulation, etc. <ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 18</ref>

=References=
<references/>

File:Paraffin-45x45.png

2017-02-20T21:17:35Z

Mireya:

Scale insect wax

2017-02-20T21:16:38Z

Mireya:

[[File:insect-45x45.png|link=https://mapas.waxpedia.org|left|50px]]
[https://mapas.waxpedia.org/ '''WAXMAP''']
=Scale Insects=
“Scale Insects” is the name given to insects belonging to the family Coccidae of the order Homoptera. They receive this name from the production by the females of a secretion, which often hardens and forms a protective scale beneath which the insect lives; but some species, such as mealy bugs, are invested with a waxy secretion and a true scale is wanting. Scale insects include a number of serious plant pests; on the other hand, some species have a commercial value, notably the Chinese insect Coccus pela, the Japanese insects Ceroplastes spp., the cochineal insect Coccus cacti, the lac insect Carteria lacca, and the so-called ground pearls of the genus Margarodes.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 104</ref>

=Family Coccidae=

There are a number of genera of the family Coccidae that furnish waxes, although only two have been of economic importance thus far, namely Coccus ceriferus, the source of the Chinese insect wax of commerce, and Tachardia Lacca, furnishing "stick-lac" wax or, in its refined form, commercial shellac wax.

In the family Coccidae there is a subfamily Coccinae, in which the "scale" is merely the thickened surface of the insect, instead of being a separate housing of the body. The Pulvinaria is a genus which secretes a mass of waxy cotton-like material in which the insect places the eggs. The genus Coccus belongs to the Coccinae, as do also Brahmea, Tachardia, Cerococcus, and Pulvinaria. These insects are referred as "coccins."

The scale insects that have a wax shell housing separated from the body are known as “coccids”. Ceroplastes is the best known genus; others furnishing waxes are Iceria, Sasakiaspis, Prontapsis, and Tachardina. The character of the wax changes somewhat, depending upon the species of host plant on which the insect feeds; in the Far East these plants are privet, citrus fruit, tea, etc. Most of the wax studies have been made in India, China and Japan. The eggs deposited by the scale insects may be transferred from one host to another to secure the best commercial yields, as in the case of the Coccus ceriferus and the ceroplastids.<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 104</ref>

=References=
<references/>

File:Insect-45x45.png

2017-02-20T17:26:05Z

Mireya:

Beeswax

2017-02-20T17:22:49Z

Mireya:

File:Beeswax-45x45.png

2017-02-20T15:18:57Z

Mireya:

File:Beeswax-30x30.png

2017-02-20T15:16:57Z

Mireya:

Ricebran wax

2016-09-13T20:29:57Z

Mireya:

=Description=
Both bran and bran coats obtained in the milling of rice, ''Oryza sativa'' L., family Gramineae, contain a lipid wax. Rice bran contains 15 to 18% and rice polishings 20% of oil. The commercial yield (of edible rice oil) is, however, more like 5 to 7%, varying with the temperature at which the extraction is made, the solvent used, source and history of the bran, and other factors. The yield of wax, if recovered from the crude rice oil, is somewhat less than 2%, or less tan 0.4% on the bran basis.

Oil from rice bran has now become an edible oil of commercial value; hence ricebran wax may become of importance as a by-product. Solvent extracted from the freshly milled rice bran, the oil is low in free fatty acid. It can be converted by conventional refining and bleaching procedures into a clear, light-colored product having a good flavor. The bran from which the oil has been extracted is bagged and sold as an animal feed.

The crude wax containing glycerides may be separated from crude rice oil by wintering at 20-25ºC, and then treated with a solvent such as 5% methanol in commercial n-hexane, to effect a sharp separation of soluble and insoluble parts. Without the use of solvent the wax from the tank settlings cannot be effectively separated by filtration methods<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 237</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

Ricebran wax

2016-09-13T20:24:54Z

Mireya: Rice bran wax, Ricebran wax

=Description=
Both bran and bran coats obtained in the milling of rice, ''Oryza sativa'' L., family Gramineae, contain a lipid wax. Rice bran contains 15 to 18% and rice polishings 20% of oil. The commercial yield (of edible rice oil) is, however, more like 5 to 7%, varying with the temperature at which the extraction is made, the solvent used, source and history of the bran, and other factors. The yield of wax, if recovered from the crude rice oil, is somewhat less than 2%, or less tan 0.4% on the bran basis.

Oil from rice bran has now become an edible oil of commercial value; hence ricebran wax may become of importance as a by-product. Solvent extracted from the freshly milled rice bran, the oil is low in free fatty acid. It can be converted by conventional refining and bleaching procedures into a clear, light-colored product having a good flavor. The bran from which the oil has been extracted is bagged and sold as an animal feed<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 237</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

Waxes from plants

2016-09-05T16:27:10Z

Mireya:

Many plants produce small proportions of wax in their tissues, in their pollen, and in their seed, but it chiefly appears as an excretion upon their leaves, stems or fruit. In some instances this secretion is abundant and is of great importance to the plant; in desert plants it provides a surface coating which retards evaporation. A number of plants produce enough wax to be of economic importance<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 9</ref>.

:1. [[Carnauba wax]]
:2. Candelilla wax
:3. [[Retamo wax]]
:4. [[Sugarcane wax]]
:5. [[Ricebran wax]]

=References=
<references/>

Sugarcane wax

2016-09-05T16:24:18Z

Mireya:

=Description=
Crude cane wax is extracted from cachaza, a by-product in the manufacture of raw sugar. Cachaza is the filter-press mud separated by sedimentation and filtration from the cane juice particles and the precipitate formed by the action of heat and chemical treatment on the colloid, and is removed in the clarification of the cane juice. The precipitate contains the cane wax that was originally on the surface of the cane stalk before it was crushed. The cachaza is removed from the cane juice, after chemical treatment and heating, by sedimentation and filtration.

When the filter cake is removed from the filters, it is mixed with a solvent which dissolves the cane wax as well as other soluble substances. The solvent is then evaporated, recovered and reused. The mass residue is waxy and contains about 50% sugar-cane wax, 30% sugar-cane fatty oil and 20% resinous matter.

In a refining process, the crude sugar-cane wax is dispersed in a solvent which readily dissolves the fatty-oil fraction and leaves the hard wax and resinous matter as a suspended solid. This slurry is filtered to remove the soluble fatty-oil fraction which is recovered as a green semifluid paste.

The sugar-cane wax and the resinous matter from which the sugar-cane fatty oil has been removed are now reslurried with additional solvent and heated until the cane wax melts. At this temperature, the resinous matter separates from the wax and is removed by decantation. The light layer containing the sugar-cane wax is then evaporated to remove all the solvent, leaving the refined cane wax which is cast into pans<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 127</ref>.

=Properties=

{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |79 - 81ºC
|-
|Penetration (100g/5sec/25ºC)
|style="text-align:center" |2 (max)
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |Brown
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |23 - 28
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |65 -77
|-
|Acetyl Value
|style="text-align:center" |25
|-
|Iodine Number
|style="text-align:center" |17
|-
|Peroxice Number
|style="text-align:center" |0
|-
|Ash
|style="text-align:center" |0.004 %
|-
|Specific Gravity
|style="text-align:center" |0.9830
|-
|Refractive Index
|style="text-align:center" |(n23) 1.5199, (n90) 1.4435
|}
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 227</ref>

=Solubility=
Sugarcane wax is partially soluble in cold alcohol, 5.9 g dissolve in 100 ml U.S.P. ethanol (95%) at 25ºC; and it is partially soluble to a much greater extent in hot ethanol. Ten parts of cane wax dissolve in 100 ml of butanol at 57ºC, in 100 ml of benzene at 67ºC, in 100 ml of ethyl acetate at 44ºC, in 100 ml of turpentine at 35ºC and 100 ml of light naphtha at 39ºC. Cane wax is partially soluble in ethylene dichloride; 1.6 g dissolve in 100 ml at 37ºC. It is quite soluble in chlorofom, but very sparingly soluble in cold ether. Hot ethyl ether dissolves it to some extent, depositing small crystal grains on cooling. The wax is soluble in hot amyl alcohol. The highly refined wax is reported as melting at 82ºC and solidifying at 80ºC and has a specific gravity (d10) of 0.961. When made into a taper it burns with a fine white flame like spermaceti<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 227</ref>.

=Uses=
As early as 1914 sugarcane wax was known to be useful as a partial substitute for beeswax in the stout, dark-colored candles of the Russian Orthodox churches. In 1918 Rindl referred to its use to a limited extent in teh polish and electrical industries; for gramophone records; and as a replacement wax in general for carnauba, beeswax, and montan wax in other industries<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 229</ref>

=References=
<references/>

Sugarcane wax

2016-09-05T16:16:45Z

Mireya: Sugarcane wax, sugar-cane wax

Waxpedia

2016-08-30T21:56:43Z

Mireya:

Sugarcane wax

2016-08-19T16:03:13Z

Mireya: /* Description */

Sugarcane wax

2016-08-19T16:02:43Z

Mireya: Sugarcane wax, sugar-cane wax

=Description=
Cude cane wax is extracted from cachaza, a by-product in the manufacture of raw sugar. Cachaza is the filter-press mud separated by sedimentation and filtration from the cane juice particles and the precipitate formed by the action of heat and chemical treatment on the colloid, and is removed in the clarification of the cane juice. The precipitate contains the cane wax that was originally on the surface of the cane stalk before it was crushed. The cachaza is removed from the cane juice, after chemical treatment and heating, by sedimentation and filtration.

When the filter cake is removed from the filters, it is mixed with a solvent which dissolves the cane wax as well as other soluble substances. The solvent is then evaporated, recovered and reused. The mass residue is waxy and contains about 50% sugar-cane wax, 30% sugar-cane fatty oil and 20% resinous matter.

In a refining process, the crude sugar-cane wax is dispersed in a solvent which readily dissolves the fatty-oil fraction and leaves the hard wax and resinous matter as a suspended solid. This slurry is filtered to remove the soluble fatty-oil fraction which is recovered as a green semifluid paste.

The sugar-cane wax and the resinous matter from which the sugar-cane fatty oil has been removed are now reslurried with additional solvent and heated until the cane wax melts. At this temperature, the resinous matter separates from the wax and is removed by decantation. The light layer containing the sugar-cane wax is then evaporated to remove all the solvent, leaving the refined cane wax which is cast into pans<ref>Bennett, H., Commercial Waxes, Second edition, p. 127</ref>.

=References=
<references/>

Waxes from plants

2016-08-19T15:45:42Z

Mireya:

Retamo wax

2016-08-19T15:41:12Z

Mireya:

=Description=
Retamo wax is obtained from a species of plant known as ''Bulnesia retama'', which is a shrub or mall tree (3-5 ft) native to Argentina. The wax is found on the branches of this plant which grows in arid lands at the foot of the Andes Cordillera mountains. The branches, generally harvested in summer, dried to loosen the wax from the cellulosic material, and then boiled in water acidified with sulfuric acid to readily free the wax<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 197</ref>.

=Properties=
{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |76 - 78 ºC
|-
|[[Acid value]]
|style="text-align:center" |48.6
|-
|[[Saponification value|Saponification number]]
|style="text-align:center" |87.3
|-
|[[Ester value]]
|style="text-align:center" |38.7
|-
|[[Iodine value|Iodine number]]
|style="text-align:center" |4.5 - 5
|-
|Acetyl number
|style="text-align:center" |17
|-
|Hydrocarbon content
|style="text-align:center" |27%
|-
|Acetone soluble
|style="text-align:center" |2.5 - 3%
|-
|Ash
|style="text-align:center" |0.03%
|-
|Moisture
|style="text-align:center" |1%
|-
|Suspended matter
|style="text-align:center" |0.14%
|-
|Isopropanol insoluble
|style="text-align:center" |None
|-
|Refractive Index
|style="text-align:center" |1.448
|-
|Penetration 100g/75ºF/5 sec
|style="text-align:center" |0.5 - 1.0
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |Café au lait
|-
|Odor
|style="text-align:center" |Odorless
|}
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=Uses=
This wax is being used successfully in the manufacture of shoe polishes, floor polishes, automobile polishes, in certain tannery finishes, edge inks for shoes, carbon paper, etc. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=References=
<references/>

Página principal

2016-08-19T15:37:03Z

Mireya:

Retamo wax

2016-08-19T15:35:21Z

Mireya: /* Description */

=Description=
Retamo wax is obtained from a species of plant known as ''Bulnesia retama'', which is a shrub or mall tree (3-5 ft) native to Argentina. The wax is found on the branches of this plant which grows in arid lands at the foot of the Andes Cordillera mountains. The branches, generally harvested in summer, dried to loosen the wax from the cellulosic material, and then boiled in water acidified with sulfuric acid to readily free the wax<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 197</ref>.

=Properties=
{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |76 - 78 ºC
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |48.6
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |87.3
|-
|Ester value
|style="text-align:center" |38.7
|-
|Iodine number
|style="text-align:center" |4.5 - 5
|-
|Acetyl number
|style="text-align:center" |17
|-
|Hydrocarbon content
|style="text-align:center" |27%
|-
|Acetone soluble
|style="text-align:center" |2.5 - 3%
|-
|Ash
|style="text-align:center" |0.03%
|-
|Moisture
|style="text-align:center" |1%
|-
|Suspended matter
|style="text-align:center" |0.14%
|-
|Isopropanol insoluble
|style="text-align:center" |None
|-
|Refractive Index
|style="text-align:center" |1.448
|-
|Penetration 100g/75ºF/5 sec
|style="text-align:center" |0.5 - 1.0
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |Café au lait
|-
|Odor
|style="text-align:center" |Odorless
|}
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=Uses=
This wax is being used successfully in the manufacture of shoe polishes, floor polishes, automobile polishes, in certain tannery finishes, edge inks for shoes, carbon paper, etc. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=References=
<references/>

Retamo wax

2016-08-19T15:34:03Z

Mireya: Retamo wax

=Description=
Retamo wax is obtained from a species of plant known as ''Bulnesia retama'', which is a shrub or mall tree (3-5 ft) native to Argentina. The wax is found on the branches of this plant which grows in arid lands at the foot of the Andes Cordillera mountains. The branches generally harvested in summer, dried to loosen the wax from the cellulosic material, and then boiled in water acidified with sulfuric acid to readily free the wax<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 197</ref>.

=Properties=
{| class="wikitable"
|Melting Point
|style="text-align:center" |76 - 78 ºC
|-
|Acid Number
|style="text-align:center" |48.6
|-
|Saponification Number
|style="text-align:center" |87.3
|-
|Ester value
|style="text-align:center" |38.7
|-
|Iodine number
|style="text-align:center" |4.5 - 5
|-
|Acetyl number
|style="text-align:center" |17
|-
|Hydrocarbon content
|style="text-align:center" |27%
|-
|Acetone soluble
|style="text-align:center" |2.5 - 3%
|-
|Ash
|style="text-align:center" |0.03%
|-
|Moisture
|style="text-align:center" |1%
|-
|Suspended matter
|style="text-align:center" |0.14%
|-
|Isopropanol insoluble
|style="text-align:center" |None
|-
|Refractive Index
|style="text-align:center" |1.448
|-
|Penetration 100g/75ºF/5 sec
|style="text-align:center" |0.5 - 1.0
|-
|Color
|style="text-align:center" |Café au lait
|-
|Odor
|style="text-align:center" |Odorless
|}
<ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=Uses=
This wax is being used successfully in the manufacture of shoe polishes, floor polishes, automobile polishes, in certain tannery finishes, edge inks for shoes, carbon paper, etc. <ref>Warth, A. H.; The Chemistry and Technology of Waxes. Reinhold Publishing Corporation. Second Edition, p. 198</ref>

=References=
<references/>

Waxes from plants

2016-08-11T18:31:26Z

Mireya: